Full text of "The great Tang Dynasty record of the western Regions"

See other formats

THE GREAT TANG DYNASTY RECORD
OF THE WESTERN REGIONS

dBET PDF Version

BDK English Tripitaka Series

THE GREAT TANG DYNASTY
RECORD OF THE
WESTERN REGIONS

(Taisho Volume 51, Number 2087)

Translated
by

Li Rongxi

BDK America, Inc.
1996

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means
—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Second Printing, 2016
ISBN: 978-1-886439-02-3
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96069942

Published by
BDK America, Inc.
1675 School Street
Moraga, California 94556

Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the
English Tripitaka

The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings.
I believe that this is because the Buddha's basic approach was to prescribe a
different treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a
different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always
appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which the
teaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed to
relieve the suffering to which it was addressed.

Ever since the Buddha's Great Demise over twenty-five hundred years ago,
his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet
no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English
throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to
make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who have
never had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha's teachings.

Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha’s eighty-four
thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nine
of the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taisho edition of the Chinese Buddhist
canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.

Itis in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized.
Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself
to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an
improved, revised edition will appear in the future.

It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist
scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has finally gotten
off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reach
each and every person in the world.

NUMATA Yehan
Founder of the English
August 7, 1991 Tripitaka Project

Editorial Foreword

In January, 1982, Dr. NUMATA Yehan, the founder of the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai
(Society for the Promotion of Buddhism), decided to begin the monumental
task of translating the complete Taisho edition of the Chinese Tripitaka (Buddhist
Canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatory
committee was organized in April, 1982. By July of the same year, the Translation
Committee of the English Tripitaka was officially convened.

The initial Committee consisted of the following members: (late) HANAYAMA
Shoyü (Chairperson); BANDO Shojun; ISHIGAMI Zenn; KAMATA Shigeo;
KANAOKA Shüyü; MAYEDA Sengaku; NARA Yasuaki; SAYEKI Shinko; (late)
SHIORI Ryotatsu; TAMARU Noriyoshi; (late) TAMURA Kwansei; URYUZU
Ryüshin; and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members of the Committee were as fol-
lows: KANAZAWA Atsushi; WATANABE Shogo; Rolf Giebel of New Zealand;
and Rudy Smet of Belgium.

After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected
139 texts for the First Series of translations, an estimated one hundred printed
volumes in all. The texts selected are not necessarily limited to those originally
written in India, but also include works written or composed in China or Japan.
While the publication ofthe First Series proceeds, the texts for the Second Series
will be selected from among the remaining works; this process will continue
until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been published.

Frankly speaking, it will take perhaps one hundred years or more to accomplish
the English translation of the complete Chinese and Japanese texts, for they
consist of thousands of works. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is the
sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue unto completion,
even after all its present members have passed away.

It must be mentioned here that the final object of this project is not academic
fulfillment, but the transmission of the teaching of the Buddha to the whole
world in order to create harmony and peace among mankind. Therefore, any
notes, such as footnotes and endnotes, which might be indispensable for academic

Editorial Foreword

purposes, are not given in the English translations, since they might make the
general reader lose interest in the Buddhist scriptures. Instead, a glossary is
added at the end of each work, in accordance with the translators" wish.

To my great regret, Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994 at the age of
97, entrusting his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide, with the continuation and com-
pletion of the Translation Project. The Committee also lost its able and devoted
Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMA Shoyü, on June 16, 1995, at the age of 63.
After these severe blows, the Committee elected me, Vice-President of the
Musashino Women's College, to be the Chair in October, 1995. The Committee
has renewed its determination to carry out the noble intention of Dr. Numata,
under the leadership of Mr. Numata Toshihide.

The present members of the Committee are MAYEDA Sengaku (Chairperson),
BANDO Shojun, ISHIGAMI Zenno, ICHISHIMI Shoshin, КАМАТА Shigeo,
KANAOKA Shüyü, NARA Yasuaki, SAYEKI Shinko, TAMARU Nortyoshi, URYUZU
Ryüshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistant members are WATANABE Shogo and
MINOWA Kenryo.

The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was established
in November 1984 in Berkeley, California, U.S.A. to assist in the publication
of the BDK English Tripitaka First Series. In December 1991 the Publication
Committee was organized at the Numata Center, with Professor Philip Yampolsky
as the Chairperson. The Numata Center has thus far published seven volumes
and has been distributing them. All of the remaining texts will be published
under the supervision of this Committee, in close cooperation with the Translation
Committee in Tokyo.

MAYEDA Sengaku

Chairperson

Editorial Committee of
November 1, 1995 the BDK English Tripitaka

viii

Publisher's Foreword

In December, 1991, at the Numata Center for BuddhistTranslation and Research
in Berkeley, California, a publication committee was established for the purpose
of seeing into print the translations of the Buddhist works in the BDK English
Tripitaka Series. This committee processes the translations forwarded by the
Translation Committee in Tokyo. It performs the duties of copyediting, formatting,
proofreading, indexing, consulting with the translators on questionable passages,
and so on—the routine duties of any publishing house. No attempt is made to
standardize the English translations of Buddhist technical terms; these are left
to the discretion of the individual translator. Represented on the committee are
specialists in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Japanese, who attempt to ensure that fidelity
to the texts is maintained.

This Publication Committee is dedicated to the production of lucid and read-
able works that do justice to the vision of the late Dr. NUMATA Yehan, who
wished to make available to Western readers the major works of the Chinese
and Japanese Buddhist canon.

“Taisho” refers to the Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo, which was published during
the period from 1924 to 1934. This consists of one hundred volumes, in which
as many as 3,360 scriptures in both Chinese and Japanese are included. This
edition is acknowledged to be the most complete Tripitaka of the Northern tra-
dition of Buddhism ever published in the Chinese and Japanese languages. As
with all books in the BDK Series, the series number on the spine and title page
of each work corresponds to the number assigned to it by the Translation Com-
mittee of the BDK English Tripitaka in Tokyo. A list of the volume numbers is
appended at the end of each volume. For the convenience of scholars who may
wish to turn to the original texts, Taisho page and column numbers are provided
in the margins of each volume.

Those participating in the work of this committee are Diane Ames, Brian
Galloway, Nobuo Haneda, Charles Niimi, and Rev. Kiyoshi S. Yamashita.

Philip Yampolsky
Chairperson
July 1, 1996 Publication Committee

Contents

A Message on the Publication of the English Tripitaka

NUMATA Yehan у
Editorial Foreword MAYEDA Sengaku vil
Publisher's Foreword Philip Yampolsky ix
Translator's Introduction Li Rongxi xiii

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Preface by Jing Bo 3
Preface by Yu Zhining 7
Fascicle I 11

Thirty-four Countries, from Agni to Kāpiśī
Agni, Kuci, Bālukā, Nujkend, Shash, Feihan, Sutrūshana, Samarkand,
Mimohe, Kapūtānā, Kuşāņika, Khagan, Bukhārā, Betik, Horişmīka,
Kasanna, Tirmidh, Sahāniyan, Kharün, Shūmān, Kuvayana, Wakhsh,
Khuttalan, Komidai, Baghlan, Hrum-Simingan, Khulm, Baktra,
Zumathan, Güzganan, Talaqan, Kacik, Bamiyana, Kapisr

Fascicle II 41
Three Countries, from Lampa to Gandhara
Lampa, Nagarahara, Gandhara
Fascicle III 71
Eight Countries, from Udyana to Rajapura
Udyana, Balura, Taksasila, Simhapura, Ura$a, Kasmira, Parnotsa, Rajapura
Fascicle IV 97
Fifteen Countries, from Takka to Kapitha
Takka, Cinabhukti, Jalamdhara, Kulüta, Satadru, Pariyatra, Mathura,
Sthanesvara, Srughna, Matipura, Brahmapura, Govisana, Ahicchattra,
Vilasana, Kapitha
Fascicle V 121
Six Countries, from Kanyakubja to Visaka
Kanyakubja, Ayodhya, Ayamukha, Prayaga, Kausambi, Visaka

Contents

Fascicle VI
Four Countries, from Sravasti to Kusinagara
Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Rama[grama], Kusinagara

Fascicle VII
Five Countries, from Baranasi to Nepala
Baranasi, Garjanapati, Vaisalt, Vrji, Nepāla

Fascicle VIII
The Country of Magadha (1)

Fascicle IX
The Country of Magadha (2)

Fascicle X
Seventeen Countries, from Iranaparvata to Malaküta
Tranaparvata, Campa, Kajangala, Pundravardhana, Kamarüpa,
Samatata, Tamralipti, Karnasuvarna, Uda, Kongoda, Kalinga,
Kosala, Andhra, Dhanakataka, Cola, Dravida, Malaküta
Fascicle XI
Twenty-three Countries, from Simhala to Varnu
Simhala, Konkanapura, Maharastra, Bharukacchapa, Malava, Atali,
Kita, Valabhi, Anandapura, Surattha, Gürjara, Ujjayani, Zhizhituo,
Mahesvarapura, Sindhu, Mülasthanapura, Parvata, Audumbatira,
Langala, Parsa, Patasila, Avanda, Varnu

Note on Simhala by Zeng He

Fascicle XII

Twenty-two Countries, from Jaguda to Gostana
Jaguda, Vrjisthana, Andarab, Khosita, Huoh, Mungan, Alini, Rahu,
Krisma, Parghar, Himatala, Badakshan, Invakan, Kurana, Dharmasthiti,
Sikni, Shangmi, Kabhanda, Wusha, Kasha, Cukuka, Gostana

Eulogy of the Buddha

Eulogy of Xuanzang

Note by Bianji

Glossary
Bibliography
Index

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripitaka (First Series)

xii

145

171

195

231

259

285

312
315

344
346
351

355
359
361
389

Translator's Introduction

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions 1s the travelogue of the
journey undertaken by Tripitaka Master Xuanzang in India and some parts of
Central Asia in 629—645 C.E. An epoch-making figure in the history of Chinese
Buddhism, Xuanzang was born at Chenliu (1n the suburbs of present-day Kaifeng
municipality in Henan province) in 600 C.E. with the family name of Chen. His
ancestral line, according to Bianji’s “Eulogy” appended at the end of this Record,
is said to be traceable as far back as the legendary Emperor Shennong, who is
supposed to have reigned around 3000 B.C.E. But according to ascertainable
historical data, Master Xuanzang was the progeny of Chen Shi, alias Zhonggong,
who once served as magistrate of the ancient Taiqiu county during the reign of
Yongping (58—75 C.E.) of Emperor Ming of the Later Han dynasty. His great-
grandfather, Chen Xin, was the governor of Shangdang prefecture during the
Northern Wei dynasty (386—534 C.E.), while his grandfather, Chen Kang, served
as an official at the court of the Northern Qi dynasty (561—77 C.E.). His father,
Chen Hui, was a learned scholar who devoted himself to the study of Confucian
classics and refused to accept government appointments at a time when the
country was in turmoil.

Xuanzang was the youngest of the four children of the family. After becoming
a novice while he was a youth, he lived with his second brother, Chen Su, who
had become a monk previously with the religious name of Changjie at Jingtu
Monastery in Luoyang, where Xuanzang started his career as a student of
Buddhist doctrines under the instruction of various teachers. At the age of twenty
he was fully ordained as a bhiksu at Chengdu in the fifth year of the Wude period
(622 C.E.). In the course of his study he was bewildered by the various theories
in the Buddhist texts available in Chinese translations. He had a strong impulse
to solve these theoretical uncertainties by searching for the missing, untranslated
original Sanskrit texts, particularly the Yogacarabhimi-sastra; thus he braved
all hardships lying ahead on the journey to India. Violating a government ban
on emigration, he slipped out of the empire without official permission. During

xiii

Translator's Introduction

his sojourn of sixteen years in India, he studied the Yogacarabhümi-sastra and
other texts under the tutelage of Venerable Silabhadra, a well-known Buddhist
scholar of Nalanda Monastery near Rajagrha. Xuanzang visited all the important
Buddhist sites and ruins, enjoyed great popularity in India through his learning
as an outstanding Buddhist scholar, and he won the support of the reigning mon-
archs such as Siladitya and others of India.

When Xuanzang reached Khotan on his way back to China, he brought with
him as many as six hundred and fifty-seven books bound in five hundred and
twenty bundles that he had acquired in India, carried by twenty packhorses. He
sent a message by a merchant to inform Emperor Taizong (r. 627—649) of his
forthcoming arrival in the capital. The emperor immediately dispatched a reply,
urging Master Xuanzang to quicken his speed in his homebound journey. Upon
his arrival in the capital on the seventh day of the first month in the nineteenth
year of Zhenguan (645 C.E.), Xuanzang was given a warm and lively welcome
by the emperor. In the course of the conversation Emperor Taizong inquired
about the conditions in the various regions and countries the master had visited.
In reply, Xuanzang informed the emperor of what he had seen or heard concerning
the religion, geography, local products, habits and customs, climates, and legends
and fables of the different localities of India and Central Asia. Fascinated by
his account, Emperor Taizong right away requested Master Xuanzang to write
a book about the journey for his reference. This was the cause for the compilation
of this Record, which Xuanzang completed in 646 C.E., the year after his return
to the capital, with the assistance of Bianji, a monk-scholar of Zongchi Monastery,
who was invited by imperial order to help the master in his translation work.
Bianji was not merely a stenographer who took down Xuanzang's dictation, as
he modestly says in his “Eulogy”; he was also an editor who put the master's
oral recitation into the classical style of the Chinese written language. This is
why Bianji's name appears on the title page as the compiler of the Record. The
name of Master Xuanzang appears as the translator, perhaps because certain pas-
sages of the Record, such as the Jataka stories, were not his but the work of earlier
writers. For further details of Xuanzang's life, see Li Rongzi, trans., A Biography
of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty
(Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 1995).

Here I should like to mention that the passage at the end of Fascicle XI 1s an
addition appended some seven hundred years after the time of Xuanzang. This

xiv

Translator's Introduction

passage deals with Zheng He's visit to Sri Lanka during the reign of Emperor
Chengzu (т. 1403-24) of the Ming dynasty. Zheng He (1371—1435) was an
influential eunuch at the court, and in 1405 he was ordered to lead an official
mission to visit various countries in South Asia and around the Indian Ocean.
In the course of his voyage, he visited King Bhuvanaikabahu V (r. 1372-1408)
of Sri Lanka. Thus it seems that Zheng He was probably the person who wrote
this passage.

From the second half of the nineteenth century onward, when French and
English translations of the Record appeared, Indian and Western historians and
archaeologists found this work of great value in filling certain gaps in the history
of India and locating the sites of former glories of ancient India. With its exact
descriptions of distances and locations of different places, the Record served as
a guidebook for the excavation and rediscovery of such important ancient sites
as the old city of Rajagrha, the Temple of the Deer Park at Sarnath, the grottoes
of Ajanta, the ruins of the well-known Nalanda Monastery in Bihar, etc. Thus
The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions is not merely a book to
be studied by students of Buddhism but also a substantial and interesting reference
providing rich information about medieval India for the general reader.

THE GREAT TANG DYNASTY RECORD
OF THE WESTERN REGIONS

Preface

Jing Bo

I venture to consider that the vast space between heaven and earth is so exten-
sive, and that the dissimilarities of human beings endowed with consciousness
and intelligence are so variant, that the Talk on Heaven could not trace their
limits, nor could the Comprehensive Map of the Earth distinguish their original
sources. From this we may know that it is impossible to relate all the places
that are not mentioned in the regional records and lie beyond the reach of
the influence and education of the imperial court.

As regards India, it has a long history since its establishment as a country.
There saints and sages spring up generation after generation, and the morality
of kindness and justice is their common custom. But in the past we never
had contacts with that country, and its territory is not conjoined with the
Middle Kingdom. It is neither recorded in the Shanhai jing (Book on Moun-
tains and Seas) nor mentioned in the Wanghui pian (Chapter on the Royal
Meeting"). Although Zhang Qian, the Marquis of Bowang, opened the road
to the Western Regions, he was inspired in vain by the sight at Bactria of
bamboo sticks produced at Qionglai Mountain in China. The Kunming route
was obstructed by the mountainous region of Yuexi in the southwest, and so
Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty could only excavate the Divine Lake at
Chang'an to train his navy, but to no effect. Therefore even though astrological
signs had shown the good omen of the birth of the Buddha, his abstruse teach-
ings were impeded from being introduced to China for a thousand years.
Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty dreamed of a golden figure with a sunlike
halo behind its head, but the divine light of Buddhism was still enshrouded
in secret ten thousand /i away. When Cai Yin was dispatched to the Western
Regions in search of the Buddhist religion, he invited Ka$yapa-Matanga to
Luoyang with Buddhist scriptures, which were preserved at the Rock Chamber,
but these were not as profound as the texts kept in the Naga Palace in India.
The Buddha's image was drawn at the Terrace of Coolness, but it was not as
fine as the statue erected at Vulture Peak.

867b

867c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

After that the governance of the state became faulty and eunuchs and
people of ignoble character swayed the realm. They brought disaster upon
the Eastern Capital and disrupted the country. The Empress and Empress
Dowager started disturbances and split the nation, as one tears a piece of silk
into pieces. Political institutions and decrees died out at Hangu Pass and
Luoyang, and beacon fires were set to give the alarm at the strategic watch-
towers. Thus the cities became blockaded by fortresses at the four suburbs.

India was separated from here by a very great distance. There were, how-
ever, occasional inquisitive travelers who visited that country to hunt for
novelty. Although they have left us some records, they did not make a full
account of the products and topography of the places they visited. They
merely quoted passages from books of strange stories and did not make a
thorough study of the truth of bhitatathata (absolute truth).

Even at the time of the Sui dynasty, when the empire was unified and the
domain considerably expanded, people could only gaze at the sea in the West
and regret that they were unable to proceed further. They had to ponder over
the situation while looking at the country of Dongli (Tàmraliptr?). It is true
that many a man has hoisted banners and flags outside the Yumen Pass, but
no record can be found about anyone who successfully crossed the Pamir
Range. How could anyone ride through the Snow Mountains and halt for a
while beside the dragon lake? This was really because the virtue of the Sui
rulers was not pervasive and their prestige not far-reaching.

The House of Great Tang, holding sway over the empire, has opened up
the world for the initiation of imperial prospects. The comets [of rebels] have
been swept away and the fortune of the nation has been brightened. Its achieve-
ments are as great as the creation of the universe, and its brilliance is equal
to the light of the sun and the moon. All people are grateful for having gained
a new life, as if they had been saved from the mouths of jackals and wolves.
Every family is glad about having a new lease on life, as if their souls had
returned from the sphere of ghosts and demons. Alien residents of different
nationalities reside on Gao Street in the capital, and all distant and desolate
places are included in the imperial territory. It may be said that the Ten Spirits
Islands are parts of the Imperial Garden, and that the four seas are regarded
as its ponds and pools. The Five Emperors of old are slighted and the monarchs
of ancient ages are held in scorn.

Preface by Jing Bo

Having entered the gate of the Dharma in his childhood, Dharma Master
[Xuanzang] regretted that he had not been to the Jetavana Garden; when he
grew up he thought about the traces left by the Buddha and eagerly looked
forward to visiting the Deer Park. Thus he lifted up his robe to start the
journey to the Land of Purity; this was his long-cherished desire.

At a time when the general mood of honesty was prevailing westward,
and in the season when the climate was suitable for officials to take home-
bound trips to the east, he started his journey, with his pewter staff in hand,
in the third year of Zhenguan. Under the spiritual protection of his ancestors,
he was able to reach lands with various customs, and he met with many dan-
gers that he eventually weathered safely. With the aid of deities he traversed
risky paths, from which he barely escaped with his life. He suffered the abrupt
changes of scorching heat and bitter cold, passing through many places before
he reached his destination. If we speak of inquiring into the truth, it depends
on whether one sees or does not see the difference between the theories of
emptiness and existence; research into the sublime teachings lies in whether
one has or has not heard about the doctrine of birth and death. Doubts about
the sea of truth must be solved to enable all living beings to awaken from
the stream of delusion. He collected various scriptures, of which not a single
word he did not understand, and he visited all the holy sites, none of which
did he not see in person. After having traveled for many years, he returned
home and reached Chang'an in the first month of the nineteenth year [of
Zhenguan], bringing back six hundred fifty-seven books, which he translated
into Chinese by imperial decree.

Dharma Master [Xuanzang] personally visited one hundred ten countries
and heard information about twenty-eight countries. Some of them are men-
tioned in the historical records of previous dynasties, while others are known
to us for the first time in the present age. All of them are influenced by the
spirit of harmony and enjoy the benevolence of Great Tang. They have paid
homage and submitted to the authority of the Emperor, beseeching him to
dispatch officials to reform their language. They climbed mountainous paths
to come to offer tribute, and they were so merrily entertained at the imperial
court that they clapped their hands; dressed in the costume of the Tang, they
formed into groups. Regarding their different products and local conditions,
as well as their social customs and the mountains and rivers of their lands,

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

we have to refer to their books for ancient times; for recent times we can
inquire of elderly people. Distant are those alien countries but here they
appear clearly before our eyes. We need not take the trouble to write letters
to find out details that are already written on white silk and entitled The Great
Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions in twelve fascicles kept in one
cloth slipcase. I humbly consider that the information provided in this book is
quite detailed, while certain trivial matters and minor events will, I hope, make
up what is missing in former historical works.

This is the preface composed by Jing Bo, Assistant Writer of the Imperial
Secretarial Department.

Preface

Yu Zhining, Duke of Yanguo and
Left Premier of the Board of Ministers

As the ray emitted from the white curl between the Buddha's eyebrows illu-
minates the whole earth, so the sweet dew of his teachings spreads over the
great chiliocosm. Like a golden mirror that shines brightly, the great order
of the Tang empire prevails over the whole domain. Having manifested the
three realms of the world, the buddha-dharma may be considered the most
venerable of all religions. With the light of virtue shining upon the four quar-
ters, the Tang empire possesses the largest territory in the world. After the
shadow of the Buddha, the Sun of Wisdom, disappeared, his teachings were
introduced to China in the East, and the Way of the Emperor was so glorious
that his moral influence reached far to the West.

The Tripitaka Master of Ci'en Monastery is named Xuanzang and has the
family name of Chen; his ancestors were natives of Yingchuan. When the
Yellow Emperor ascended the throne at Youxiong, he controlled Huazhu and
established the Chen family. Emperor Shun threw open the doors at the four
sides of his audience hall to receive the princes and dukes under his sover-
eignty, and he laid the foundation of his lofty structure even when he was
farming at Lishan. King Wu of the Zhou dynasty conferred the fief of Chen
on a descendant of Emperor Shun and made his offspring one of the three
respectable families. Chen Ping's six ingenious stratagems played a glorious
part in the establishment of the Han dynasty, and the petitions submitted by
Chen Chong and his son Chen Zhong to the emperors of the Later Han dynasty
were like brilliant moonlight shining upon the world after sunset. When Chen
Shi and his sons and nephews visited Xun Shu and his sons, Jupiter, the star
of virtue, appeared in the sky to mark the meeting of virtuous people of great
talent. Prominent figures emerged in the Chen clan in successive generations,
like huge fishes swimming freely side by side in the sea, or enormous rocs
flying high with wings fully extended. By their traditional virtue, not only
did the stock of the Chen family prosper but also its branches flourished as
those of a distinguished clan.

868a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The Master was born under the favorable auspices of the light of harmony
and the appearance of the Star of Virtue. He has deep roots with exuberant
foliage, and the source of his Way is profound and long-lasting. In his infancy
he had a lofty bearing like the glow of the rising sun and moon, and in child-
hood he proved to be a good son, as admirable and fragrant as orchids and
osmanthus. When he had grown up he studied well the ancient books and
his fame spread all over the country, so much so that the local governments
of various places vied with each other in inviting him to serve in their offices.
He could discern truth from falsehood at an early age and always had com-
passion and wisdom. He longed to gain a clear understanding of truth and
sighed at the limitations of human life. He regarded the red silk ribbon attached
to the official seal and the purple belts worn by government officials as snares
of the material world, and he thought that the precious vehicles, the ekayana
(One Vehicle), and the esoteric texts were truly the ways leading one out of
the world. Therefore he despised all worldly things as dust and rubbish, and
talked only about serene and broadminded principles.

His elder brother, Venerable Changjie, a pillar of the gate of Buddhism,
was as energetic as a naga (dragon) in practicing the Way, and his wisdom
might be compared with that of Sariputra of yore. Both those who held office
at court and those who were not in office respected him for his good demeanor
and learning, and his repute and literary talent were admired by people both
at home and abroad. The two brothers had a deep feeling of fraternity in con-
cordance with the ethical relationships between members of a family. The
Master was diligent in serving his elder brother and in receiving instruction
from him without wasting a single moment. His accomplishments in learning
qualified him to be a Chief Monk and thus occupy an outstanding position in
a monastery. His virtue coincided with the principle of the Middle Way, and
he was well known among his fellow monks. He galloped along the path of
equality and comprehended the nine classes of the Buddhist texts, his scope
of learning being as extensive as the marshland of Yunmeng. He rowed his
way in the sea of abstruse teachings, looking down upon the Four Vedas,
which appeared to him insignificant. After that he traveled for several years
to various places to attend lectures on Buddhist theories, until he succeeded
in his studies and gained achievement in learning.

Preface by Yu Zhining

In the remote past, at the beginning of time, the sun and moon shone upon
the Terrace of Spirituality, and Yang Xiong deliberated about the Way of
Heaven, which called for deep thought in one's mind. Then the teachings of
the Buddha were gradually revealed, waiting to be spread far and wide. Hold-
ing the jade handle of his chowrie (fly-whisk), the Master waved off the mist
on the sea to unveil the billows, just like an experienced wheelwright who
knows the essence of his craft or a zither maker who understands the knack
of producing musical instruments. He was so well informed that he instructed
people with the fluency of water pouring out of a bottle, and he traveled alone
far away from his native place in a small boat. While he was still at home,
he defeated a boastful man who bragged that he had to wear a copper belt
around his waist lest his abdomen should burst under the pressure of the
knowledge he had in his possession; when he came to the region of Shu he
informed his elder brother that he had the desire to travel abroad. People far
and near said to him, *We have heard that the Xun family of old had eight
prominent sons, and now we see that the Chen clan has two outstanding
brothers. It is true that many distinguished persons have emerged in the region
between Ruzhou and the Ying River!"

From his youth until he arrived at adulthood, the Master engaged himself
in studying abstruse Buddhist books. Well-known scholars and predecessors
grasped the theories of different sects of Buddhism, performing detailed
research into side issues and forgetting about the root, plucking flowers while
neglecting the fruit. Thus they gave rise to the southern and northern schools
with various tenets and contradictory arguments. In the long-standing theo-
retical contentions he was at a loss what to do, and feared that the translators
might have made mistakes and caused confusion, so that he might not be
able to get a thorough understanding of the ultimate truth. With this view in
mind, he wished to read all Buddhist texts at the Naga Palace in India.

At a time when the country was most prosperous, and equipped with
unparalleled virtue, he started his journey to the remote lands carrying his
pewter staff and whisked the dust off his robe. In this manner he left Chang'an
behind to proceed with big strides toward the Pamir Range. In his long journey
over land and water he experienced all sorts of hardships and risks. He con-
sidered the journey undertaken by the Marquis of Bowang not a long one and

868b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

regarded Faxian as having traveled only in a limited area. Wherever he went
he studied the local dialect and conducted research into the profound theories
there; he probed into the essence of the Buddhist teachings in a marvelous
way. Thus he was eloquent in debate and became famous in India, and he
brought back to China the Buddhist scriptures written on palm leaves.

Emperor Taizong, who ascended the precious throne as a gold wheel king,
was a person of elegant character. He granted an interview to the Master in
the inner chamber of the imperial palace, showing the consideration due to
a learned scholar, and listened attentively to what he said. He personally
wrote decrees to express his friendly feeling to the Master and sent palace
messengers incessantly to inquire after his health. At the request of the Master,
the Emperor composed the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka
in seven hundred and eighty characters. When the reigning Emperor [Gao-
zong] was crown prince and living at the Spring Palace, he wrote 4 Record
Relating the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka in five hundred
and seventy-nine characters. If the Master had not cast the light of his prestige
upon Kukkutarama Monastery and had not spread his fame over Vulture
Peak in India, how could the emperors have condescended to write such
ornamental compositions for the commendation of a contemporary scholar?

Under imperial edict, the Master translated six hundred and fifty-seven
Sanskrit texts into Chinese. Having witnessed the strange customs of distant
lands, the typical scenes of remote countries, the special products of different
places, the peculiar orders of human relations, the regions where the Chinese
almanac has been adopted, and the localities where Chinese culture and
influence have reached, he wrote The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the
Western Regions in twelve fascicles, in which he cited passages from profound
and obscure texts and included comprehensive investigations and detailed
textual researches done in such a way as to render it a work of lasting value.

Fascicle I

Thirty-four Countries,
from Agni to Kapisi

. The Country of Agni

. The Country of Kuci

. The Country of Baluka

. The Country of Nujkend

. The Country of Shash

. The Country of Feihan

. The Country of Sutrüshana
. The Country of Samarkand
. The Country of Mimohe

MN 00-10 tn + t) Nme

10. The Country of Kapütana
11. The Country of Kusanika
12. The Country of Khagan
13. The Country of Bukhara
14. The Country of Betik

15. The Country of Horismika
16. The Country of Kasanna
17. The Country of Tirmidh

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23,
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3T.
32.
33.
34.

The Country of Sahaniyan
The Country of Kharün
The Country of Shüman
The Country of Kuvayana
The Country of Wakhsh
The Country of Khuttalan
The Country of Komidai
The Country of Baghlan
The Country of Hrum-Simingan
The Country of Khulm
The Country of Baktra
The Country of Zumathan
The Country of Güzganan
The Country of Talaqan
The Country of Kacik
The Country of Ваттуапа
The Country of Kapist

By counting the grand strategies of successive emperors and reading the 868c

records of remote events of the past monarchs, we know that when Emperor

Fuxi first ascended the throne and when the Yellow Emperor began to rule

over the country, they managed the affairs of the people and divided the coun- 869a

try into administrative regions. When Emperor Yao of Tang received the

Mandate of Heaven to be the sovereign his glory reached the four quarters,

and when Emperor Shun of Yu accepted the map of the empire his virtue

spread over all the nine districts. Since then only the memoranda recording

past events have been transmitted, and if one wishes to hear from the former

sages he or she can only listen to the historians who recorded their words.

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

How can these be compared with our time, when good government prevails
in the empire under a monarch who reigns without ruling?

As to our great Tang dynasty, it has held sway over the empire in accordance
with the Mandate of Heaven; taking advantage of the times, it has controlled
the power of governance. The Emperor has united the six quarters into one
domain and filled it with his glory, and he has succeeded to the virtuous deeds
of the three ancient emperors as the fourth one in order, illuminating the world
with his light. His subtle influence has permeated widely and his auspicious
edification has extended far. He possesses the power of covering and carrying
all things like heaven and earth, and he acts with the functions of both the stim-
ulating wind and the moistening rain. With the Yi tribe at the eastern border
coming to offer tribute and the Rong people of the western frontier arriving to
pledge allegiance, he has founded an imperial heritage for his posterity; and
in quelling rebellion to restore order, he certainly has surpassed former kings.
His great deeds have included all those achieved by previous dynasties. Now
the whole empire is in such a uniformity that we use the same characters in
writing and our carriages have standard wheels to go in the same ruts. This is
the marvelous achievement of his consummate government. If I did not mention
all these points in my Record, I should have nowhere to praise his great exploits,
and if I did not publish them abroad, how could I shed light on his profuse
merits? Wherever I went in my journey I inquired about the local conditions
and customs, and although I did not do research into their locations, nor did I
differentiate their social institutions, I believe that the great merits of Emperor
[Taizong] have surpassed those of the three ancient emperors and the five mon-
archs of old. All living creatures are benefited by his genial influence and every
human being who can speak extols his merits. From the Tang empire up to the
land of India all the people, either of secluded regions with different customs
or of isolated places and alien countries, accept the Chinese calendar and enjoy
the fame and teachings of the Emperor. The praise of his military feats has
become a topic of conversation and the commendation of his civic virtue is
the most popular theme. I examined various books but found no records of
these things, and I presume that there is no similar instance mentioned in the
genealogical tables. Had I not made this narration, how could I record the ben-
eficial influence of the Emperor? The narratives I have now composed are
based on what I saw and heard.

Fascicle I

Now the sahà world, consisting of one great chiliocosm, is the sphere of
the spiritual influence of one buddha. The four continents under the illumi-
nation of one sun and moon within the great chiliocosm are the places where
the buddhas, the World-honored Ones, emerge in their incarnation bodies
and manifest birth and death to enlighten saints and ordinary beings. Mount
Sumeru, meaning “Wonderful High Mountain," is composed of the four pre-
cious substances. It is located in the sea, standing on the golden wheel, under
the illumination of the sun and moon in rotation, being the residence of heav-
enly beings, surrounded by a ring of seven mountains and seven seas. The
water in the seas between the mountains possesses the eight virtues. Beyond
the seven golden mountains is the Salt Sea. Roughly speaking, there are four
habitable continents in the seas, namely, the Videha continent in the east, the
Jambu continent in the south, the Godantya continent in the west, and the
Kuru continent in the north. А gold wheel king rules over all these four con-
tinents, a silver wheel king administers all except the Kuru continent in the
north, a copper wheel king's domination does not include the Kuru continent
in the north or the Godantya continent in the west, while an iron wheel king
controls only the Jambu continent in the south. When a wheel king is about
to ascend the throne a great precious wheel of gold, silver, copper, or iron
will appear in the air according to his merits, to empower him to rule over
four, three, two, or one continent, as the case may be. As the wheel is an aus-
picious symbol, it is adopted as the title of the kings.

In the center of the Jambu continent is Anavatapta Lake, meaning “No
Trouble of Heat," which is south of Fragrant Mountain and north of the Great
Snow Mountains, with a circuit of eight hundred /i. Its banks are adorned
with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. It is full of golden sand and its
water 15 as pure and clean as a mirror. A bodhisattva of the eighth stage,
having transformed himself into a naga king by the power of his resolute
will, makes his abode at the bottom of the lake and supplies water for the
Jambu continent. Thus from the mouth of the silver ox at the east side of the
lake flows the Ganges River, which, after going round the lake once, enters
the Southeast Sea; from the mouth of the golden elephant at the south side
of the lake flows the Indus River, which, after winding round the lake once,
enters the Southwest Sea; from the mouth of the lapis lazuli horse at the west
side of the lake flows the Oxus River, which, after meandering round the

869b

869c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

lake once, enters the Northwest Sea; and from the mouth of the crystal lion
at the north side of the lake flows the Sita River, which, after encircling the
lake once, enters the Northeast Sea, or it is said that it flows by a subterranean
course to Jishi Mountain, where the water reappears as a tributary of the Sita
and becomes the source of the Yellow River in China.

As there is no ruler now destined to be a wheel king, the Jambu continent
is reigned by four lords. The dominion under the sovereignty of the lord of
elephants in the south is hot and humid in climate, and it is fit for breeding
elephants. In the west the lord of treasure rules over the land beside the sea,
where there are plenty of precious substances. The place of the lord of horses
in the north is cold and bracing, and it is good for rearing horses. The country
of the lord of humans in the east is well populated with amiable inhabitants.
The people of the lord of elephants are impetuous by nature, but they are
devoted to studies and are especially skillful in miraculous arts. They wear
a piece of cloth across the body, leaving the right shoulder bare. Their hair
is made into a topknot with tufts falling down on the sides. They live in
groups of clans in towns, and their houses are multistoried. In the country
ofthe lord of treasure the people know nothing of propriety and righteousness
and overestimate wealth and property. They wear short jackets fastened on
the left side and cut their hair short but keep long mustaches. They live in
towns and gain profit by engaging in trade. The people under the rule of the
lord of horses are of a furious disposition and are cruel man-slayers. They
live in felt yurts and are migratory herdsmen. In the land of the lord of humans
the people are clever and skillful with obvious sentiments of kindness and
righteousness. They wear hats and belts and their garments are buttoned on
the right side. Their carriages and clothes are classified according to the ranks
and orders of the people, and they are attached to their native land and unwill-
ing to leave it. They have a class of people specially devoted to commerce.

Excluding the lord of humans, the other three lords hold the east as the
superior direction. Their people build houses with doors opening to the east,
and early in the morning they pay reverence toward that direction. In the
land of the lord of humans the people respect the southern direction. Such
is the general condition of the different customs and modes of living in the
diverse countries. As regards the etiquette observed between a monarch and
his subjects and that between the superior and the inferior, and the cultural

Fascicle I

institutions and political systems, the land of the lord of humans excels all
the other countries; as to instructions concerning the purification of the mind
and liberation from worldly burdens, as well as teachings to relieve one from
birth and death, the best theories are in the country of the lord of elephants.
All these matters are recorded in classical works and imperial mandates and
are also heard from the local people. I have made a careful check about what
I saw and heard.

Though the Buddha was born in the West his Dharma has spread to the
East. In the course of translation mistakes may have crept into the texts, and
idioms may have been misapplied. When the words are wrong the meaning
is lost, and when a phrase is mistaken the doctrine becomes distorted. Hence
the saying, “It is necessary to use correct names." What is valuable is the
absence of faults!

Human beings are of different dispositions, stubborn or pliable, and speak
different languages. This is caused by climatic conditions and by customary
usage. As to the varieties of physical features and natural products of the
land of the lord of humans, and the different customs and temperaments of
its people, they are recorded in detail in our national histories. As to the cus-
toms of the land of the lord of horses and the country of the lord of treasure,
they are fully described in historical records, and we can give a brief account
of them. But as to the country of the lord of elephants, it has never been
described accurately in our ancient literature. Some said that it was mostly
a hot and humid country, and others depicted its people as customarily fond
of kindness and compassion. These are mentioned in topographies, but no
detailed information can be found. As the Way is sometimes prevalent and
sometimes in hiding, do not human affairs also have changes of fortune?
Thus we may know that it is difficult to describe all those who predict the
right season to pledge allegiance and who come to submit to the benevolence
of the Emperor, or those who, passing one danger after another, seek admit-
tance at Yumen Pass bearing tribute of native rarities and bow before the
gate of the imperial palace. This is why in the intervals of my studies during
my long journey inquiring for truth I took notes on the conditions and customs
along the way.

Up to the Black Range, the customs of the Hu people are prevalent.
Although they live together with the Rong people in the same localities, they

870a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

are distinct tribes and their territories are demarcated. They are mostly abo-
rigines, living in walled cities, engaging in agriculture and rearing cattle.
They value wealth and property, and to despise kindness and righteousness
is their custom. They have no ceremony for marriage and no distinction
between the superior people and the inferior. The wife's word is authoritative
and the husband occupies a low position. They cremate the bodies of the
dead and have no fixed period of mourning, but they scrape their faces, muti-
late their ears, cut off their hair, and rend their garments. They slaughter
domestic animals as sacrifices offered to the manes of the dead. On happy
occasions they put on white clothes, while at sorrowful events they are dressed
in black. This is a brief account of the common or similar customs of the
tribes; the different politics and various institutions of diverse countries will
be described separately as the occasion arises, and the manners and customs
of India will be narrated in the following Record.

Going out of what was formerly the land of Gaochang, I started my journey
with the nearest country, called Agni (formerly known as Yangqi).

The country of Agni, which is more than six hundred /i from east to west
and over four hundred /i from south to north, its capital city being six or
seven /i in circuit, is surrounded by hills on four sides with perilous tracks
that are easily defended. Spring water flows in a network of channels, leading
the water to irrigate cultivated fields. The soil is suitable for growing millet,
broomcorn, winter wheat, fragrant jujubes, grapes, pears, crabapples, and
other fruit. The climate is moderate and pleasant, and the people are honest
and straightforward by social custom. Their alphabet is taken from that of
India with slight modifications. The garments of the people are made of felt
and hempen cloth. The men cut their hair short without wearing any headdress.
As to their currency, they use gold, silver, and small copper coins. The king,
a native of the country, is a brave man but he lacks resourcefulness and he
indulges in bragging about his own merits. The country has no guiding prin-
ciple or discipline and government orders are imperfect and not seriously
implemented. There are more than ten monasteries with over two thousand
monks, who are followers of the Sarvastivada school of the Hinayana teach-
ings. Since they practice the scriptural theories and observe the Vinaya dis-
cipline of India, the students carefully study these subjects in Indian texts.

Fascicle I

They are pure and strict in observing the Vinaya rules, but they eat the three
kinds of pure meat together with other foodstuffs, which shows that they are
stagnating in the stage of the gradual teaching.

Going from here toward the southwest for more than two hundred /i, I climbed
over a hill and crossed two large rivers and then reached a plain in the west.
After proceeding for more than seven hundred Ji, I arrived in the country of
Kuci (formerly known as Qiuci).

The country of Kuci is over one thousand /i from east to west and over
six hundred /i from south to north, and its capital city is about seventeen or
eighteen /i in circuit. The soil is fit for growing millet and wheat. It yields
round-grained rice, grapes, and pomegranates, and plenty of pears, crabapples,
peaches, and apricots. It produces gold, copper, iron, lead, and tin. Its climate
is mild and the people are honest and upright by nature. Their writing is taken
from that of India but with minor alterations. Their skill in playing wind and
stringed instruments is well known in various countries. They dress in brocade
and hempen clothes, cut their hair short, and wear turbans. For currency they
use gold, silver, and small copper coins. Being a man of Kuci, the king has
little resourcefulness and is under the control of powerful ministers. It is their
custom to press the heads of their babies into a flat shape with wooden planks.
There are over one hundred monasteries with some five thousand monks,
who study the Sarvastivada school of the Hinayana teachings. Their scriptural
teachings and Vinaya discipline follow the example of India, so they study
the books on these subjects in the original Indian language. As they eat the
three kinds of pure meat together with other foodstuffs, they are still stagnating
in the stage of the gradual teaching. But they are pure in conduct and deeply
engrossed in studies, and they compete with one another in their achievement
of spiritual cultivation.

In front of a deva temple to the north of a city in the eastern part of the
country there is a big dragon pond. The dragons of the pond often changed
their form to mate with mares and gave birth to dragon colts, which were
fierce and unruly, but the offspring of the dragon colts were tamable. That
is why plenty of good horses are bred in this country. I heard some old people
say that there was recently a king named Golden Flower who, through his
sagacious administration and sharp insight into political affairs, convinced

870b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

one of the dragons to pull his carriage for him. When the king was approaching
death he touched the dragon's ear with his whip and it then submerged into
the pond and hid itself, up to the present time. As there was no well in the
city the people drew water from this pond. The dragons transformed them-
selves into human form and mated with the women. Their descendants were
strong and courageous and could run as fast as a galloping horse. In this man-
ner the blood of the dragons was diffused and everybody became a person
of the dragon race. Relying on their physical strength, they rode roughshod
over others and paid no heed to the king's orders. Thus the king colluded
with the Turks to slaughter all the inhabitants, old and young, in the city.
After the massacre not a single person was left living in the city, which 1s
now a deserted place without a trace of human habitation.

More than forty /i to the north of the deserted city there are two monasteries
separated by a river close to the corner of a mountain. Both monasteries, one
on the east side and the other on the west side of the river, are named Cakuri.
The images of the Buddha and the ornaments are so beautifully made that
they almost excel human craftsmanship. The monks are pure and austere in
conduct and are sincere and diligent in their studies.

In the buddha hall of Eastern Cakuri Monastery there is a jade stone
about two feet in width, yellowish-white in color, in the shape of a sea clam.
On the stone there is a footprint of the Buddha, one foot eight inches in
length and more than six inches wide. On fast days it sometimes issues a
brilliant light.

There are two standing statues of the Buddha, more than ninety feet in
height, one at each side of the road outside the west gate of the capital city.
Itis at this place in front of the statues that the great quinquennial congre-
gations are held. Every year, for several tens of days around the autumnal
equinox, all the monks in the whole country come here to attend a meeting.
From the monarch and princes on down to the commoners, all suspend their
secular affairs and observe the precepts; they study the scriptures and listen
to the discourses on the Dharma for a whole day at a time without feeling
fatigue. All the monasteries decorate their buddha images with jewels and
gems, dress them in brocade and damask, and carry them in handcarts,
counted by the thousand, to conduct what is known as the procession of
images, flocking to meeting place. The king always discusses state affairs

Fascicle I

with his ministers on the fifteenth and the last day of the lunar month and,
after consulting with the eminent monks about their discussion, they make
a proclamation.

At the northwest of the meeting place I crossed a river and reached А$сагуа
(“Marvelous”) Monastery. The buildings and courtyards of the monastery
are splendid and spacious and the buddha images are well adorned. The
monks, quiet and austere in appearance, are diligent in their studies, without
negligence. Old people of virtue with much learning and great talents are
venerated. In admiration of their good conduct, brilliant scholars come here
from distant lands to stay with them. The king and his ministers, as well as
the common people and magnates, provide the monks with the four monastic
requisites with increasing respect as time goes on.

I heard some old people saying that once a previous king of this country,
who revered the Triple Gem, wished to go on tour to worship various holy
sites at different places, and he had his younger brother act as regent during
his absence. Upon receiving the king's order the younger brother secretly
cut off his own genital organ and put it in a golden casket, as a precaution
against possible calumny. He sent the casket to the king, who asked, “What
Is it?" His younger brother said in reply, “Upon your return, Your Majesty
may open it and see." The casket was then handed to a guard of the king's
retinue for safekeeping during the journey. When the king returned from his
trip a slanderer actually accused the regent, saying, “The regent appointed
by the king committed adultery in the inner palace." On hearing this accusation
the king was enraged and intended to impose a heavy punishment on the cul-
prit. His younger brother said, “I would not dare evade the responsibility but
I hope that the golden casket can be opened." When the king opened the
casket and found a severed male organ contained in it, he asked, “What is
this strange thing? What do you want to say about it?" His younger brother
said, “When Your Majesty went out on tour and appointed me as regent, I
feared that the disaster of a possible [accusation of] calumny might befall
me, so I cut off my genital organ to prove my innocence. Now this misfortune
has actually happened to me. I hope Your Majesty will make a clear inves-
tigation into the case." The king was deeply surprised to hear this and since
then his fraternity toward his younger brother became more profound, so
that he was allowed free admission to the inner palace without hindrance.

870c

871a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Later, when the king's younger brother was walking on the road, he met
with a herdsman driving a herd of five hundred bulls to be castrated. On
seeing these animals that were about to suffer the same impairment as he
had, the king's younger brother reflected on his own fate and thought, “Is it
not due to my past evil deeds that I am now a deformed manin this life?"
Thus he redeemed the herd of bulls from mutilation with money and valuables,
and through the power of his compassion his genital organ was gradually
restored. As he regained his masculinity he refused to enter the inner palace
any more. When the amazed king asked him why, he told the king all the
details. Regarding this as a marvelous affair, the king constructed the
monastery in a beautiful style to transmit [his brother's] good reputation to
posterity.

From here going westward for more than six hundred /i, I crossed a small
desert and arrived in the country of Baluka (formerly known as Gumo or
Jimo). The country of Baluka is over six hundred /i from east to west and
more than three hundred /i from south to north, its capital city being five or
six li in circuit. The native products, climate, temperament of the people,
customs, written language, and law are all the same as in the country of Kuci,
but the spoken language differs somewhat. Its fine cotton and hempen cloth
is much valued in the neighboring countries. There are several tens of monas-
teries with more than a thousand monks, who study the Sarvastivada school
of the Hinayana teachings.

Proceeding northwest from this country for more than three hundred Zi, I
crossed a stony desert and reached the Ice Mountains, which are located at
the northern side of the Pamir Range, where most of the streams flow eastward.
Snow is accumulated in the valleys, which are freezing even in the spring
and summer seasons, and although they sometimes melt a little they soon
become frozen again. The path is dangerous and the cold wind blows with
a piercing vehemence. There are frequent disasters caused by ferocious drag-
ons that give trouble to travelers. Travelers going by this route should not
wear garments of reddish-brown color, nor should they carry calabashes or
shout loudly. The slightest infringement of these taboos will cause immediate
disaster. A fierce wind will arise all of a sudden, sand flying in the air and
pebbles raining down from the sky. Those who encounter such a catastrophe
are sure to die, [or at least] it is difficult for them to escape alive.

Fascicle I

Going among the mountains for over four hundred Ji, I reached the Great
Pure Lake (also known as the Hot Sea or the Salt Sea), which is more than
one thousand /i in circuit. It is long from east to west and narrow from south
to north. There are hills around the lake and many streams flow into it. The
water is dark blue in color and brackish and bitter in taste. It is a vast expanse
of water with huge and boisterous waves. Fish and dragons live together in
the lake and supernatural monsters sometimes appear in it. Therefore passing
travelers pray to them for good fortune and there are plenty of aquatic animals,
though no one would venture to catch them.

From the Pure Lake going northwest for more than five hundred Ji, I
reached the City of Sushe River, which is about six or seven /i in circuit, a
place where traders of the Hu tribes from different countries mingle their
abodes. The soil is good for growing millet, wheat, and grapes but fruit trees
are scarce. The climate is windy and cold and the people wear clothes made
of felt and hemp. To the west of Sushe River are some tens of isolated cities,
each having its own ruler, but they do not obey one another and they are all
under the domination of the Turks.

The region stretching from city of Sushe River up to the country of Kasanna
is called Suli, and the people are known by the same name. Their language
is also known as Suli. The alphabet of their language is brief and simple,
having only twenty-odd rudimentary letters, with which a vast vocabulary
is formed by a methodical spelling system. The people have rough written
records, which are read vertically and are transmitted from teacher to pupil
without interruption. They dress in felt and hempen clothes and put on fur
and cotton garments. Both their undergarments and their upper clothes fit
tightly. They cut their hair short and expose the tops of their heads, or they
shave their heads completely, tying a colored silk band on the forehead. They
are tall and sturdy in stature but timid in disposition. Their general mood is
perfidious and deceptive. They are mostly avaricious and take account of
money matters even between father and son. Wealthy people are honored
and esteemed and there is no distinction between the well-born and the low-
born. A millionaire, however, may lead a simple and coarse life. Half of the
population are farmers and the other half traders.

Going westward from Sushe City for more than four hundred /i, I arrived at
Thousand Springs. The district known by this name is over two hundred /i

871b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

square, facing the Snow Mountains in the north, with plains on the three
other sides. The soil is fertile and damp and there are luxuriant trees. In late
spring various flowers bloom as beautifully as embroidered silk. As there
are a thousand springs, the district is named as such. The Turkish Khan often
comes here in the summer season to avoid the heat. There are flocks of deer,
most of them wearing bells and rings. They are docile and friendly with
people and do not easily become so afraid as to flee. These animals are pets
of the Khan, who has forbidden his subjects to slaughter them on penalty of
death, so they can live out their natural lifetimes.

Going westward from Thousand Springs for one hundred and forty or
fifty li, I reached the city of Taras, eight or nine /i in circuit, being a place
where traders of the Hu tribes from different countries make their abodes
together. The natural products and climate are roughly the same as in Sushe.
Going southward for about ten /i is a small isolated town, in which live
more than three hundred Chinese families who were formerly taken prisoner
by the Turks. Afterward they gathered together all their compatriots and
safeguarded this town, in which they settled. They adopted the costume and
etiquette of the Turks but retained the language and ways of life of their
own country.

From here going southwest for more than two hundred /i, I arrived at the
City of White Water, which is six or seven /i in circuit. The native products
and climatic conditions are much better than in Taras. Going south for more
than two hundred /i, I reached Gongyu City, which is five or six /i in circuit.
The plains and marshlands are rich and fertile and covered with luxuriant trees.

From here going south for forty or fifty li, I came to the country of Nujkend.
The country of Nujkend is more than one thousand /i in circuit, and the soil
is fertile, tilled and reaped perfectly. The vegetation is luxuriant and there
are profuse flowers and fruit. Grapes are grown in large quantities and are
highly valued. There are about a hundred cities and towns, each governed
by its own ruler, and they are mutually independent in taking action. Although
they have clearly demarcated areas they are collectively known as the country
of Nujkend.

From here going westward for over two hundred /i, I came to the country of
Shash (known as the country of Shi in Chinese). The country of Shash is

Fascicle I

more than one thousand /i in circuit, bordering the She River on the west. It
is narrow from east to west and long from south to north. The natural products
and climate are the same as in Nujkend. There are several tens of cities and
towns, each having its own ruler without a sovereign lord, and all of them
are under the control of the Turks.

From here proceeding southeast for more than one thousand /;, I reached the
country of Feihan. The country of Feihan is over four thousand /i in circuit
and is surrounded by mountains on four sides. The land is fertile and the agri-
cultural products are rich. There are plenty of flowers and fruit, and it is fit
for rearing sheep and horses. The climate is windy and cold and the people
are stout and brave by nature. Their language is different from those of other
countries, and their features are ugly and misshapen. For the last several
decades there has been no sovereign ruler in the country; the chieftains compete
with one another for power and no one yields to the others. They have delimited
the boundaries of their districts by rivers and precipitous mountains.

From here going westward for more than one thousand /;, I reached the country
of Sutrüshana. The country of Sutrüshana is fourteen or fifteen hundred /i in
circuit, bordering the She River on the east, which has its source in the plateau
to the north of the Pamir Range. It is a mighty river of muddy water with rapid
currents. The native products and customs are the same as in the country of
Shash. In this country there is a king who is affiliated with the Turks.

From here going toward the northwest, I entered a great desert in which
there is absolutely no water or grass. The roads are lost in the vast waste, and
its limits are unfathomable. Only by looking at the huge mountains and fol-
lowing the scattered skeletons can one know the direction and find the path.

After traveling for over five hundred /i, I reached the country of Samarkand
(known as Kangguo in Chinese). The country of Samarkand is sixteen or sev-
enteen hundred /i in circuit, long from east to west and narrow from south to
north. The capital city is more than twenty /i in circuit and is a completely
invulnerable stronghold with a large population. Precious goods of different
quarters are mostly centralized in this country. The soil is rich and fertile and
all kinds of crops are cultivated. The trees of the forests are luxuriant and
have profuse flowers and fruit. This country yields many good horses and

871c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Its skillful craftsmen are the best among various countries. The climate is mild
and temperate but the people are irascible by nature. The various states ofthe
Hu tribe regard this country as their center, and people far and near follow the
example of this country in social manners and behavior. The king is a valorous
man and the neighboring countries obey his orders. He has a strong military
force consisting of a large body of Cakar warriors; ће Cakar people are coura-
geous by nature, fearless of death, and without rival in martial skill.

From here proceeding toward the southeast, one goes to the country of
Mimohe (known as Miguo in Chinese). The country of Mimohe is four or
five hundred Ji in circuit, situated in the middle of a plain, narrow from east
to west and long from south to north. The native products and customs are
the same as in the country of Samarkand.

From here proceeding toward the north, one arrives at the country of Kapütana
(known as Caoguo in Chinese). The country of Kapütana is fourteen or fifteen
hundred /i in circuit, long from east to west and narrow from south to north.
The native products and customs are the same as in the country of Samarkand.

From this country proceeding westward for more than three hundred /7, one
arrives at the country of Kusanika (known as Heguo in Chinese). The country
of Kusanika is fourteen or fifteen hundred /i in circuit, narrow from east to
west and long from south to north. The native products and customs are the
same as in the country of Samarkand.

From this country proceeding westward for more than two hundred /i, one
reaches the country of Khagan (known as East Anguo in Chinese). The
country of Khagan is more than one thousand /i in circuit and the native
products and customs are the same as in the country of Samarkand.

From this country proceeding westward for more than four hundred /i, one
reaches the country of Bukhara (known as Middle Anguo in Chinese). The
country of Bukhara is sixteen or seventeen hundred /i in circuit, long from
east to west and narrow from south to north. The native products and customs
are the same as in the country of Samarkand.

From this country proceeding westward for more than four hundred /i, one
reaches the country of Betik (known as West Anguo in Chinese). The country

Fascicle I

of Betik is more than four hundred /i in circuit and its native products and
customs are the same as in the country of Samarkand.

From here proceeding southwest for over five hundred /i, one reaches the
country of Horismika. The country of Horismika, lying along the Oxus River
on both banks, is twenty or thirty /i from east to west and over five hundred
li from south to north. The native products and customs are the same as in
the country of Betik but the language is slightly different.

Going southwest from the country of Samarkand for more than three hundred
li, I reached the country of Kasanna (known as Shiguo in Chinese). The coun-
try of Kasanna is fourteen or fifteen hundred /i in circuit, and the native prod-
ucts and customs are the same as in the country of Samarkand. From here
going southwest for more than two hundred /i, I entered a mountainous region,
where the roads are rough and rugged and the narrow path is dangerous.
There are no inhabitants and little water and grass.

Going southeast among the mountains for over three hundred Ji, I entered
the Iron Gate. On both sides of the Iron Gate there are precipitous rocks.
Although there is a narrow path, it is hardly accessible. The rocky walls
standing on both sides of the path are of the color of iron. The door panels
are strengthened with iron and many iron bells are hanging on them. As it is
in an impregnable position, it is called by this name.

Going out of the Iron Gate, I arrived at the country of Tukhara (formerly
transcribed incorrectly as the country of Tuhuoluo). This territory is over
one thousand /i from south to north and more than three thousand /i from
east to west. It borders on the Pamir Range in the east, adjoins Persia in the
west, touches the Great Snow Mountains in the south, and occupies the Iron
Gate in the north, with the great Oxus River flowing westward through the
middle of it. For several centuries the royal family had no offspring and the
powerful chieftains competed vigorously with one another, each trying to
be the lord of his own district, delimited by rivers and strategic positions,
and they divided the country into twenty-seven states. Although each [of
these chieftains] has his own clearly demarcated territory they are all under
the domination of the Turks. As the climate is temperate illness and pestilence
are rampant. By the end of winter and at the beginning of spring, when there

872a

872b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

is continuous heavy rain, febrile ailments are prevalent in all the countries
south of this territory down to the north of Lampa. The monks commence
their summer retreat on the sixteenth day of the twelfth month and end it on
the fifteenth day of the third month. It is because this place has so much rain
that the dates are thus fixed according to the seasons. The people are timid
and cowardly and are bad-looking, but in manner they are creditable and
loyal and they seldom resort to deception. Their language and manners differ
slightly from those of other countries. There are twenty-five letters in their
alphabet, by which various words are formed to express all things. Their
writing is horizontal, from left to right, and their records have been gradually
increased until they exceed those of Suli in number. They use more cotton
than hemp in making clothes. For currency they use golden, silver, and other
coins, which are different in shape from those of other countries.

Following the course of the Oxus River northward to the lower reaches, one
arrives at the country of Tirmidh. The country of Tirmidh is more than six
hundred /i from east to west and over four hundred /i from south to north,
its capital city being more than twenty /i in circuit, long from east to west
and narrow from south to north. There are more than ten monasteries with
over one thousand monks. The stupas (known in old times as futu, toupo,
tapo, sitoubo, or soudoubo, all erroneous) and the venerated images of the
Buddha are mostly miraculous and cause spiritual manifestations.

To the east of this country is the country of Sahaniyan. The country of
Sahaniyan is more than four hundred /i from east to west and over five hundred
li from south to north; its capital city is more than ten /i in circuit. There are
five monasteries with very few monks.

To the east of this country is the country of Kharün. The country of Kharün
is over one hundred /i from east to west and more than three hundred /i from
south to north, its capital city being over ten /i in circuit. The king is a Turk
from Xisu. There are two monasteries with over one hundred monks.

To the east of this country is the country of Shüman. The country of Shüman
is more than four hundred /i from east to west and over one hundred /i from
south to north, its capital city being sixteen or seventeen /i in circuit. The
king is a Turk from Xisu. There are two monasteries with very few monks.

Fascicle I

To the southwest along the Oxus River is the country of Kuvayana. The coun-
try of Kuvayana is more than two hundred /i from east to west and over three
hundred /i from south to north, its capital city being over ten /i in circuit.
There are three monasteries with over one hundred monks.

To the east of this country is the country of Wakhsh. The country of Wakhsh
is more than three hundred /i from east to west and over five hundred /i from
south to north, its capital city being sixteen or seventeen li in circuit.

To the east of this country is the country of Khuttalan. The country of Khut-
talan is over one thousand / from east to west and more than one thousand
li from south to north, its capital city being over twenty /i in circuit. It adjoins
the Pamir Range and reaches the country of Komidai in the east.

The country of Komidai is more than two thousand /i from east to west and
over two hundred /i from south to north, being situated among the mountains
of the Pamir Range. The capital city is more than twenty /i in circuit. It borders
on the Oxus River in the southwest and adjoins the country of Sikni in the
south. Crossing the Oxus River to the south, it reaches the country of Dharma-
sthiti, the country of Madakhshan, the country of Yamgan, the country of
Kuran, the country of Himatala, the country of Parghar, the country of Kishm,
the country of Rahula, the country of Arhan, and the country of Mungan. To
the southeast of the country of Warwaliz are the countries of Khost and
Andarab. Accounts of these countries may be found in the descriptions of
my return journey.

To the southwest of the country of Warwaliz is the country of Baghlan. The
country of Baghlan is more than fifty /i from east to west and over two hundred
li from south to north; its capital city is more than ten li in circuit.

To the south is the country of Hrum-Simingan. The country of Hrum-Simingan
is over one thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is fourteen or fifteen Zi
in circuit.

To the southwest is the country of Khulm. The country of Khulm is over
eight hundred /i in circuit and its capital city is five or six /i in circuit. There
are more than ten monasteries with over five hundred monks.

872c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

To the west is the country of Baktra. The country of Baktra is more than
eight hundred /i from east to west and over four hundred /i from south to
north, bordered by the Oxus River on the north. Its capital city, which is more
than twenty /i in circuit, is popularly known as Smaller Rajagrha. It is a
strongly fortified city but sparsely populated. There are a great many varieties
of native products and the terrestrial and aquatic flowers are too many to be
enumerated. There are more than one hundred monasteries with over three
thousand monks, all of whom study and practice the Hinayana teachings.

To the southwest outside the city is New Monastery, built by a previous
king of this country. This is the only monastery north of the Great Snow
Mountains in which various Buddhist commentators have worked continu-
ously without intermission. The Buddha's image is adorned with famous
jewels and the halls are decorated with rare precious substances. For this
reason the rulers of various countries attacked the monastery in order to
capture the valuables. In the monastery there is a statue of the deity Vaisravana,
who is reliable in his spiritual power and serves as a guardian of the monastery
in a hidden sense. Recently the Turkish Shehu Khan's son, named Si Shehu
Khan, mobilizing all the forces of his tribe and commanding his army,
launched a surprise attack on the monastery and attempted to seize the jewels.
Not far away from the monastery he camped with his troops. During the
night he dreamed of Vai$ravana, who said to him, “What power do you have
that you dare to devastate the monastery?" So saying, he thrust his spear
through the Khan's chest. Waking in terror, the Khan felt an acute heartache
and told his subordinates about his evil dream. Then he hurriedly sent mes-
sengers to invite the monks so that he might confess his wickedness in their
presence, but he died before the messengers returned.

In the southern buddha hall of this monastery there is a Buddha's bathing
pot of about one dou (1 decaliter) in capacity. It is ofa variegated color and
dazzlingly brilliant, and it is difficult to say whether it is made of metal or
of stone. There is also a Buddha's tooth relic about one inch long and eight
or nine fen (1 fen — 1/10 of an inch) wide. It is yellowish-white in color and
bright and clean in texture. There is also a Buddha's broom, made of kasa
grass, about two feet long and seven inches around, the handle adorned
various precious substances. These three articles are always shown on the
six fast days to the assembly of monks and laypeople, who make offerings

Fascicle I

to them. When moved by the sincerity of the devotees these articles may
emit a brilliant light. To the north of the monastery there is a stupa over two
hundred feet in height, plastered with diamonds and decorated with various
precious substances. A piece of relic bone is enshrined in the stupa, which
often issues a divine light.

To the southwest of the monastery there is a vihara (temple) that was built
many years ago. Numerous learned monks congregated at this monastery
from distant places, and it is difficult to number those who were arhats (saints).
Therefore only those arhats who had manifested supernatural powers at the
time of entering nirvana and had become well known to the monks had stupas
built for them. These were a hundred in number, with their bases very close
together. Although those monks who had attained sainthood were also num-
bered by the thousand no memorials were erected for them, as they did not
show supernatural powers at death. Now there are over a hundred monks,
who work hard day and night for spiritual cultivation, but it is difficult to
know who is an ordinary monk and who is a saint.

Over fifty /i to the northwest of the capital is the city of Trapusa, and over
forty li to the north of this city is the city of Bhallika. In each ofthe two cities
there is a stupa more than thirty feet in height.

When the Tathagata first realized buddhahood, he rose from his seat under
the bodhi tree. When he was about to go to the Deer Park, the two elders
[Trapusa and Bhallika] met him in his majestic glory and offered him some
parched grain and honey out of their traveling provisions. The World-honored
One spoke to them on the blessedness acquired by human and heavenly
beings, and they were the first to hear the five precepts and the ten good
deeds. After having heard the instructions on the Dharma they requested
something for them to worship. Then the Tathagata gave them some of his
hair and nail parings to take back home. As they asked about the manner of
venerating these relics, the Tathagata folded his samghati (double robe; incor-
rectly transcribed as sengqili in olden times) into a square and spread it on
the ground, and he did the same with his uttarasanga (upper robe) and
samkaksika (side-covering vest; incorrectly transcribed as sengqizhi in olden
times). Then he placed his inverted almsbowl on the robes and set his pewter
staff on top ofthe bowl to make the shape of a stupa. The two men returned
to their respective cities and each built a stupa after the pattern shown by the

873a

873b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

holy Buddha. This was the prototype of the stupas built by the Buddhists
according to the teachings of the Buddha.

More than seventy /i to the west of the city is a stupa over twenty feet in
height, which had been built long ago at the time of Kasyapa Buddha.

Proceeding southwest from the capital city, one enters a nook of the Snow
Mountains and reaches the country of Zumathan. The country of Zumathan
is fifty or sixty /i from east to west and over one hundred /i from south to
north, its capital city being more than ten /i in circuit.

Proceeding southwest one reaches the country of Güzganan. The country of
Güzganan is more than five hundred /i from east to west and over one thousand
li from south to north, its capital city being more than twenty /i in circuit.
This country has many mountains and rivers and produces good horses.

Proceeding northwest one reaches the country of Talaqan. The country of
Talaqan is over five hundred /i from east to west and fifty or sixty /i from
south to north, its capital city being more than ten /i in circuit. It borders on
the country of Persia in the west.

Going south from the country of Baktra for more than one hundred /i, I
arrived at the country of Kacik. The country of Kacik is more than five hun-
dred /i from east to west and over three hundred /i from south to north, its
capital city being four or five /i in circuit. The soil is hard and infertile, with
hills and mounds connecting to one another. There are few flowers or fruit
but much pulse and wheat. The climate is severely cold and the people are
harsh and fierce by custom. There are more than ten monasteries with over
three hundred monks, all of whom study the Sarvastivada school of the
Hinayana teachings.

Proceeding southeast one enters the Great Snow Mountains. The mountains
are high and the valleys deep, and the peaks and cliffs are fraught with danger.
Wind and snowfall follow each other and even at the height of summer it is
cold to the point of freezing. Snow heaps up in the valleys and the footpath
is hard to walk on. Mountain deities and evil ghosts, when enraged, send
forth monstrous sprites to create havoc. It is also infested with gangs of brig-
ands, whose business is murder.

Fascicle I

Going for more than six hundred /i, I came out of the territory of Tukhara
country and reached the country of Ваттуапа. The country of Bamiyana is
more than two thousand /i from east to west and over three hundred /i from
south to north, being situated among the Snow Mountains. The people lived
on the slopes of the valleys and gradually became town-dwellers. The capital
city lies upon a cliff and stretches across a valley six or seven /i in length,
with a lofty precipice at its back on the north. It produces winter wheat but
few flowers and fruit. It 1s fit for cattle breeding and there are many sheep
and horses. The climate is severely cold and the customs are harsh and rude.
The people mostly wear fur and hempen clothes, which are suitable for them.
The written language, social institutions, and currency are the same as those in
Tukhara. The spoken language is slightly different but the manners and features
of the people are generally the same. Their mind of pure faith is far better than
that ofthe people in neighboring countries. They worship the Triple Gem with
utmost sincerity and venerate all gods down to the various deities. When mer-
chants coming and going happen to witness visions of heavenly deities, whether
as good omens or as predictions of disaster, they worship the deities to pray for
blessedness. There are several tens of monasteries with several thousand monks,
who follow the Hinayana teachings of the Lokottaravada school.

To the northeast of the royal city, at a corner of the mountains, there is a
rock statue of the standing Buddha, one hundred forty or fifty feet in height,
of a dazzling golden color and adorned with brilliant gems. To the east there
is a monastery built by a previous king of the country. To the east of the
monastery there is a copper statue of the standing Buddha, more than one hun-
dred feet tall. It was cast in separate pieces and then welded together into shape.

In the monastery situated two or three /i to the east of the city there is an
image of the recumbent Buddha, more than one thousand feet long, in the
posture of entering nirvana. At this place the king often convened the quin-
quennial assembly, in which he offered everything from his queen down to the
national treasures as alms to the monks. When the state repository was exhausted
he gave himself up to the monks, and then his officials paid ransom to the
monks to redeem the king. This practice has become the king's regular duty.

Going from the monastery of the image of the recumbent Buddha toward
the southeast for over two hundred /i, I crossed the Great Snow Mountains

873c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

and reached the Small Marshland in the east, where the water of the springs
and ponds is as clear and lucid as a mirror, with luxuriant trees of green
foliage. There is a monastery in which are preserved a tooth relic of the
Buddha and a tooth of a pratyekabuddha who lived at the beginning of the
present kalpa (eon), more than five inches long and less than four inches
wide. There is also a tooth of a gold wheel king, three inches long and two
inches wide, as well as the iron almsbowl used by the great arhat Sanakavasa
(incorrectly transcribed as Shangna-hexiu in olden times), with a capacity
of eight or nine sheng (liter). These three kinds of relics left by the holy ones
are sealed up in golden containers.

There is also preserved a piece of Sanakavasa’s samghüti robe, consisting
of nine stripes of a dark red color. It was made of the cloth woven with the
fiber of the sa@naka (hemp) plant. $апаКауава was a disciple of Ananda. In
a former life he presented a piece of hempen robe to the monks on the last
day of the summer retreat. Through this meritorious deed he was born five
hundred times always wearing a hempen garment, whether he was in the
state of intermediate existence or born into the human world. In his last birth
he was born wrapped in a hempen garment, which enlarged with the growth
of his body. When he was converted to the Buddhist order by Ananda his
garment turned into a religious robe, and when he received full ordination
it became а samghati robe of nine stripes. When he was about to realize nir-
vana he entered the ultimate samadhi of perfection; through the power of
his vow of wisdom he left his robe to last in the world until the end of the
bequeathed teachings of the Buddha. It will decay only after the termination
of the Dharma. It is now slightly diminished, and this is evidence for the
veracity of the legend.

Going from here to the east and after crossing the Black Range, I reached
the country of Kapisi. The country of Kāpiśī is more than four thousand /i
in circuit, with the Snow Mountains at its back in the north and the Black
Range surrounding the three other sides. It is fit for growing rice and wheat
and there are plenty of fruit trees. It produces good horses and aromatic
turmeric. Rare commodities from different places are mostly concentrated
in this country. The climate 1s windy and cold and the people are rude and
rustic by nature. Their language is vulgar and indecent and they practice

Fascicle I

mixed marriage. The written language is generally the same as in the country
of Tukhara but the customs and spoken language and social institutions are
quite different. They wear woolen and cotton clothes and also use fur and
hemp in making garments. For currency they use golden and silver coins
and small coppers, whose sizes and shapes differ from those of other countries.
The king, who belongs to the Suli tribe, is a man of strategy, brave and fiery
by nature and feared by neighboring regions; he has more than ten countries
under his dominion. He loves and nurtures his subjects and venerates the
Triple Gem. Every year he makes a silver image of the Buddha, eighteen
feet in height. He also holds a quinquennial assembly for the distribution of
charity to the poor and needy, and he gives alms to widows and widowers.
There are over one hundred monasteries with more than six thousand monks,
most of whom study the teachings of the Mahayana school. The stupas and
monasteries are tall and spacious and are kept clean in a solemn manner.
There are over ten deva temples with more than one thousand heretical believ-
ers, who either go about naked or with dust smeared on their bodies; some
wear strings of skulls as head ornaments.

Three or four /i to the east of the great city there 1s a large monastery at
the foot of the northern mountain with over three hundred monks, all of
whom study the teachings of the Hinayana schools. I heard some old people
say that when King Kaniska of the country of Gandhara was on the throne,
his prestige extended to the neighboring countries and his influence reached
distant regions. He strengthened his military forces and expanded his territory
to the east of the Pamir Range. Out of fear of the king’s might, the lord of a
Chinese vassal state west of the Yellow River sent his son as hostage to the
king. Upon receiving the hostage prince King Kaniska treated him with
special kindness and courtesy, providing him with different lodgings according
to the seasons. In the winter he stayed in various states in India and in the
summer he returned to the country of Kapist, while in the spring and autumn
he stayed in the country of Gandhara. Therefore a monastery was built at
each of these places where the hostage prince lived in the three different sea-
sons. This monastery was the one built at his summer residence. Painted on
the walls of the buildings are pictures of the hostage prince, his features and
costume being quite the same as those of the Chinese people. Afterward he
was sent back to his own country, but in memory of his old residences he

874a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

continued to send offerings to the monasteries without interruption in spite
of the obstacles of mountains and rivers. Now the monks of the monastery
still perform grand religious functions at the times of commencing and dis-
solving the summer retreat to pray for blessedness and perform meritorious
deeds on behalf of the hostage prince, without cease up to the present time.

Under the right foot of the statue of the great deity at the southern side of
the east gate of the buddha hall courtyard of the monastery, there was an
underground treasure laid up by the hostage prince with an inscription that
reads, “When the monastery is in need of repair, take this treasure for its ren-
ovation.” Recently the king of a frontier country, an avaricious and cruel man,
heard that there were plenty of jewels and gems stored in the monastery. After
he had expelled the monks and was about to dig up the treasure, the figure of
a parrot on the crown of the great deity vigorously flapped its wings and
screamed in a terrible manner, causing an earthquake. The king and his soldiers
were so frightened that they fainted and fell on the ground and it was a long
time before they came to, after which they apologetically returned home.

On the mountain to the north of the monastery there are several caves in
which the hostage prince practiced meditation. A large quantity of miscellaneous
valuables was stored in the caves, with an inscription placed beside them and
guarded by a yaksa (demon). Whenever anyone wished to open the caves to
take away the treasure the yaksa, through his supernatural power, would appear
in different forms: as a python, a fierce animal, or a poisonous insect, all greatly
enraged. Therefore no one dared to attempt to take the valuables by force.

On a great mountain two or three /i to the west of the caves there is a
statue of Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva. When anybody earnestly wishes to see
the bodhisattva he appears out of the statue in a graceful form to comfort the
devotee.

Over thirty /i to the southeast of the great city is Rahula Monastery. Beside
it there is a stupa more than one hundred feet in height that sometimes emits
a brilliant light on fast days. From a crevice on the body of the stupa in the
shape of an inverted almsbowl black aromatic oil oozes out, and on a quiet
night one sometimes hears the sound of music. I heard some old people say
that it was built by Rahula, a minister of this country. When the construction
was completed he dreamed that someone said to him, “In the stupa you have
constructed there is no sarira (relic bone) enshrined. Tomorrow morning

Fascicle I

someone will offer one to the king. You may as well ask the king for it." The
next morning the minister went to court and said to the king, “May I have
the impudence to beg a favor from Your Majesty?" The king said, “What is
your desire?" The minister asked, “Will Your Majesty grant me what is first
offered to you today?" The king said, “Let it be so!"

Rahula then waited at the gate of the palace to see who was coming first,
and in a moment a man came with a bottle containing a grain of sarira. The
minister inquired of the man, “What are you going to offer to the king?" The
man said, “A buddha sarira (гес)? The minister said, “I shall watch the sarira
for you while you go in to report first to the king." Rahula, fearing that the king
might be reluctant to part with the precious Sarira and might go back on his
promise, quickly went to the monastery and climbed up on the stupa with such
a pious mind that the stupa in the shape of an inverted almsbowl, moved by his
earnestness, opened by itself so that he could deposit the sarira inside. He then
hurriedly came out and the gusset of his robe was caught by the closing crevice.
The king's messenger chased after the relic but the stone stupa had already
closed. Thus black aromatic oil oozed out from the crevice.

More than forty /i to the south of the city is the City of $vetavat Temple.
Whenever there is a big earthquake and the mountains and precipices collapse,
nothing 1s shaken within the limits of this city.

More than thirty /i to the south of the City of Svetavat Temple is Aruna
Mountain, with its lofty peaks and cliffs and gloomy valleys stretching far.
The top of the mountain increases every year by several hundred feet in
height, as if to look at Sunàsira Mountain in the country of Jaguda, and then
it suddenly collapses. I heard the local people say that when the deity Suna
first came here from a distant place, he wished to stay at this mountain. Ter-
rified, the mountain god shook the rivulets in the valleys. The deity said, *You
do not wish me to take up lodging with you, and so you shook the earth. If
you had shown me a little hospitality I would have filled your chest with riches
and valuables. Now I am going to Sunagira Mountain in the country of Jaguda.
Every year at the time when I receive worship and offerings from the king
and his ministers, you may only look at me!" Thus Aruna Mountain increases
to a height and then immediately collapses.

More than two hundred /i to the northwest of the royal city are the Great
Snow Mountains, at the top of which there is a lake. Whenever people come

874b

874c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

here to pray for rain or fine weather their wishes are always fulfilled. I heard
some old people say that formerly there was an arhat in Gandhara, who
always received offerings of alms from the naga king of this lake. Every day
at the time of the midday meal he would sit on his folding chair and fly
through the air to the lake through supernatural power. Once his attendant
novice hid himself below the folding chair and the arhat went to the lake as
usual when the time arrived for him to make the journey. On arriving at the
nàga's palace he discovered the novice, and so the naga king also invited
the novice to the meal. The naga king offered heavenly delicious rice to
entertain the arhat, while he gave the novice food of the human world. When
the meal was over the arhat preached the Dharma for the naga king, and the
novice washed his master's almsbowl, as usual. When he discovered some
remaining grains of rice in the bowl he was amazed by its fragrance and he
immediately cherished a malignant feeling against his master and the naga
king, saying, “May the power of whatever good deeds I have performed
appear to kill this naga and let me be the king." The moment the novice
expressed this desire the naga king felt a headache. A fter listening to the ser-
mons delivered by the arhat, the naga king repented his misdeed and blamed
himself, but the novice, deeply resentful, would not make a confession nor
accept the naga king's apology. Having returned to the monastery, the novice,
by his earnest desire and the power of his good deeds, died that night and
was reborn as a great naga king with majesty and valor. He came to the lake,
killed the resident naga king, occupied the naga palace, took possession of
his subordinates, and became the master of all. Out of his old indignation he
caused a violent storm that uprooted the trees, intending to destroy the
monastery.

At that time King Kaniska, perplexed by the accident, made inquiries into
the matter and the arhat told him everything. The king then built a monastery
at the foot of the Snow Mountains with a stupa over one hundred feet high
for the naga. Out of his old resentment the naga sent forth wind and rain.
The king cherished the mind of universal salvation but the naga, out of his
malignance and hatred, caused storms six times to destroy the monastery
and stupa, but they were rebuilt seven times. King Kaniska, ashamed of his
failure, intended to fill up the naga s lake and demolish his dwellings. He
mobilized his troops and came to the foot of the Snow Mountains. Deeply

Fascicle I

terrified, the naga king transformed himself into the form of an old brahman,
halted the king's elephant, and offered a remonstrance to him, saying,
“Because, Great King, you have in the past performed good deeds and sowed
many superior causes, you are now a king of humans and no one dares to
disobey you. Why do you contend with a naga today? A naga is an animal,
and though of a base and evil species he still possesses great power and
cannot be subjugated by strength. He can ride on a piece of cloud and fly
through the air, or tread upon empty space and walk over water, beyond the
control of human power. What influence can your anger produce upon him?
Now you have mobilized all of the military forces in the whole country to
fight with a naga. Even if you win in the battle you will not gain the prestige
that you achieve when you conquer a distant land; if you lose the war you
will bring shame on yourself for being unable to defeat your enemy. It is in
your own interest to withdraw your troops."

King Kaniska did not listen to this remonstrance so the naga returned to
his lake and caused a thunderstorm and a hurricane that uprooted the trees.
Sand and stones rained down from the air, clouds and mist darkened the
world, and the king's troops and horses were frightened. The king then took
refuge in the Triple Gem, begging for protection, saying, "Because I have
done many good deeds in the past I am now a king of human beings with
mighty power to subdue strong enemies and rule over Jambudvipa. Now I
am humiliated by this naga animal, which shows that my blessedness is
scanty. May whatever power I have gathered from doing good deeds be

present at this very moment!” Immediately a huge flame arose from his shoul-
ders, the naga retreated, the wind died down, and the mist and clouds dis-
persed. The king ordered each soldier in his army to carry a piece of stone
to fill up the naga lake. The naga king resumed the form of a brahman and
said again to the king, “I am the naga king of this lake and, out of fear of
your great power, I have come to pledge allegiance to you. May the king
take pity on me and forgive me for the faults I have committed. You are a
king who nourishes and protects all living beings, so why should you do
harm to me alone? If you kill me, we will both fall into the evil ways of exis-
tence, because you will have commited the sin of taking life, while I will
have cherished a feeling of hatred and vengeance in my mind. Karmic ret-
ribution is apparent and shows plainly what is good and what is evil.”

875a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The king then reached an agreement with the naga that should the naga
commit another offense in the future, the king would certainly not pardon
him. The naga said, “Because of my evil karma done in the past I am now
a naga. As a naga is violent by nature, I am unable to restrain myself and in
a fit of anger I may forget about the obligation. If you build another monastery
I will dare not destroy it again. Please always send a guard to watch the peak
ofthe mountain. If a black cloud arises he should at once strike an instrument.
When I hear the sound I shall quench my evil mind." The king then con-
structed another monastery together with a stupa, and a guard was stationed
to watch to see if any black cloud appeared. This is still done without inter-
ruption. I heard some old people say that inside the stupa there was preserved
about one sheng of bone and flesh relics of the Tathagata.

Marvelous events are difficult to relate in detail. Once smoke suddenly
arose from inside the stupa, and in a moment raging flames burst out of it.
The people thought that the stupa must have been consumed by the fire, but
after looking at it for a long time, when the smoke and flames had vanished,
they saw the relics resembling a streamer of white pearls, winding upwards
around an ornamental pillar, up to the clouds and whirling down again.

In Old Royal Monastery on the southern bank of the great river in the
northwest of the royal city is a deciduous tooth of Sakyamuni Bodhisattva
about one inch long. To the southeast of this monastery there is another one,
also called Old Royal Monastery, in which is preserved a piece of the Tatha-
gata's skull bone about one inch broad, yellowish white in color, with dis-
tinctive hair pores. There is also a hair of the Tathagata's head, dark purple
in color, curled up rightward about half an inch long, but when extended it
measures about one foot. These three objects are worshiped with scattering
of flowers by the king and his ministers on the six fast days of every month.

To the southwest of this skull bone monastery is Old Queen's Monastery,
in which there is a gilt copper stupa more than one hundred feet in height. I
heard some local people say that it contained over one sheng of the Buddha's
relic bones, from which on the night of the fifteenth day of every month emits
a round light shining continuously upon the dew basin of the stupa which
gradually fades into it at dawn.

To the southwest of the city is Pilusara (“Strong Elephant") Mountain. It
is called Strong Elephant because the tutelary deity of the mountain assumed

Fascicle I

the form of an elephant. Formerly, when the Tathagata was living in the
world, the deity of Strong Elephant Mountain once invited the World-honored
One and his twelve hundred great arhats to the mountain. There was a large
flat rock on the top of the mountain, where the Tathagata took his seat and
accepted the alms offered by the deity. Afterward King Asoka erected a stupa
more than one hundred feet high on the rock. This is what the people now
call Strong Elephant Stupa, and it is also said that about one sheng of the
Tathagata’s relic bones is preserved in it.

Below the cliff to the north of Strong Elephant Stupa is a naga spring,
where the Tathagata and arhats washed their mouths by chewing willow
twigs after taking the meal offered by the deity. They planted the twigs in
the ground, where they took root and grew into the dense wood that it is now.
Afterward, people built at this place a monastery called Pindaka (“Chewing
Willow Twigs”) Monastery.

From here I traveled east for more than six hundred /i through mountains
and valleys connected with each other. The peaks and cliffs are steep and
precipitous. After crossing the Black Range I entered the territory of North
India and reached the country of Lampa (in the domain of North India).

End of Fascicle I of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

875b

Fascicle II

Three Countries, from
Lampa to Gandhara

1. The Country of Lampa
2. The Country of Nagarahara
3. The Country of Gandhara

Ina careful study we find that Tianzhu is variantly designated, causing much
confusion and perplexity. Formerly it was called Shengdu, or Xiandou, but
now we should call it Indu (India) according to the right pronunciation. The
people of India use different names for their respective countries, while people
of distant places with diverse customs generally designate the land that they
admire as India. The word indu means “moon,” which has many names, and
this is one of them. It means that living beings live and die in the wheel of
transmigration in the long night of ignorance ceaselessly, without a rooster
to announce the advent of the dawn. When the sun has sunk candles continue
to give light in the night. Although the stars are shining in the sky, how can
they be as brilliant as the clear moon? For this reason India was compared to
the moon. Because saints and sages emerged one after another in that land to
guide living beings and regulate all affairs, just as the moon shines upon all
things, it was called India. In India the people are divided into different castes
and clans, among whom the brahmans are the noblest. Following their good
name, tradition has designated the whole land as the brahmanical country,
disregarding the regular lines of demarcation.

As regards the territory, we may say that the whole of India, with its five
parts, is over ninety thousand /i in circuit, with three sides facing the sea and
the Snow Mountains at its back in the north. It is wide in the north and narrow
in the south, in the shape of a crescent moon. The land is divided into more
than seventy countries. The climate is particularly hot and the soil is mostly
moist, with many springs. In the north there are many mountains and the
hills are of saline-alkaline soil. In the east the plain is rich and moist, and the

875c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

cultivated fields are productive. In the south vegetation 15 luxuriant, while
in the west the soil is hard and barren. Such is the general condition [of this
vast country] told in brief.

For the measurement of space there is the yojana. (In olden times it was
called youxun, yuzhena, or youyan, all incorrect.) One yojana is the distance
covered by the ancient royal army in one day's time. Formerly it was said
to be forty li, or thirty li according to Indian usage, while in Buddhist texts
it was counted as only sixteen /i. To divide it down to the infinitesimal, one
yojana is divided into eight krosas, one krosa being the distance within which
the mooing of a bull can be heard, one krosa into five hundred bows, one
bow into four cubits, one cubit into twenty-four fingers, and one finger joint
into seven grains of winter wheat. Then the division goes on by sevens through
the louse, the nit, the crevice dust, the ox hair, the sheep wool, the hare hair,
the copper dust [particle], the water dust, down to the fine dust, and one fine
dust [particle] is divided into seven extremely fine dust [particles]. The
extremely fine dust is indivisible; if divided it becomes emptiness. This is
why it is called extremely fine dust.

Although the names of the alternating [periods of] day and night and the
emergence and disappearance of the sun and moon are different [from those
used in China], there is no difference in the measurement of time and season.
The months are named according to the position of the Big Dipper. The
briefest unit of time is called a Asana; one hundred twenty ksanas make one
tatksana; sixty tatksanas make one lava; thirty lavas make one muhürta;
five muhürtas make one kala; and six kalas make one day and one night
(three kalas in the daytime and three in the night). Secular people divide one
day and one night into eight ka/as (four kalas in the daytime and four in the
night, each being subdivided into four divisions). From the waxing moon to
the full moon is known as the white division, and from the waning moon to
the last day of the month is called the black division. The black division has
fourteen or fifteen days, as the month may be “small” or “big.” The anterior
black division and the posterior white division constitute one month and six
months make one year. When the sun moves inside the celestial equator, it
is the northern revolution, and when it moves outside the celestial equator,
it is the southern revolution. These two revolutions constitute one year. The
year is also divided into six seasons, namely, from the sixteenth day of the

Fascicle II

first month to the fifteenth day of the third month is the season of gradual
heat; from the sixteenth day of the third month to the fifteenth day of the
fifth month is the season of intense heat; from the sixteenth day of the fifth
month to the fifteenth day of the seventh month is the rainy season; from the
sixteenth day of the seventh month to the fifteenth day of the ninth month is
the season of exuberance; from the sixteenth day of the ninth month to the
fifteenth day of the eleventh month is the season of gradual cold; and from
the sixteenth day of the eleventh month to the fifteenth day of the first month
is the season of severe cold.

According to the holy teachings of the Tathagata, a year is divided into
three seasons, namely, from the sixteenth day of the first month to the fifteenth
day of the fifth month is the hot season; from the sixteenth day of the fifth
month to the fifteenth day of the ninth month is the rainy season; and from
the sixteenth day of the ninth month to the fifteenth day of the first month is
the cold season. Or it is divided into four seasons, namely, spring, summer,
autumn, and winter. The three months of spring are called Сайта, Vaisakha,
and Jyestha, corresponding to the period from the sixteenth day of the first
month to the fifteenth day of the fourth month in China. The three months
of summer are called Asadha, Sravana, and Bhadrapada, corresponding to
the period from the sixteenth day of the fourth month to the fifteenth day of
the seventh month in China. The three months of autumn are known as
A$vayuja, Karttika, and Margasirsa, corresponding to the period from the
sixteenth day of the seventh month to the fifteenth day of the tenth month in
China. The three months of winter are named Pausa, Magha, and Phalguna,
corresponding to the period from the sixteenth day of the tenth month to the
fifteenth day of the first month in China.

Thus, according to the holy teachings of the Buddha, the monks of India
observe the summer retreat during the rainy season, either in the earlier three
months or in the later three months. The earlier three months correspond to
the period from the sixteenth day of the fifth month to the fifteenth day of
the eighth month in China, and the later three months correspond to the period
from the sixteenth day of the sixth month to the fifteenth day of the ninth
month in China. Former translators of scriptures and Vinaya texts used the
terms zuoxia or zuola (“to sit for the summer or the annual retreat"). This
was because they were outlandish people who did not understand the Chinese

876a

876b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

language correctly or were not conversant with the dialects, and so they com-
mitted mistakes in their translations. Moreover, there are divergences in the
calculation of the dates of the Buddha's entry into his mother's womb, birth,
renunciation, enlightenment, and nirvana; this point will be discussed later.

As regards the towns and cities, they have square city walls, which are
broad and tall. The streets and lanes are narrow and winding, with stores
facing the roads and wine shops standing beside the streets. Butchers, fish-
ermen, harlots, actors, executioners, and scavengers mark their houses with
banners and are not allowed to live inside the cities. When they come to town
they have to sneak up and down along the left side of the road. Concerning
the building of residential houses and the construction of the city walls, they
are mostly built with bricks, as the terrain is low and humid, while the walls
of houses may be made of wattled bamboo or wood. The roofs of houses,
terraces, and pavilions are made of planks, plastered with limestone and cov-
ered with bricks or adobe. Some of the lofty buildings are similar in style to
those in China. Cottages thatched with cogon grass or ordinary straw are
built with bricks or planks and the walls are adorned with limestone. The
floor is purified by smearing it with cow dung and seasonal flowers are scat-
tered over it. In this matter they differ [from Chinese custom].

The monasteries are constructed in an extremely splendid manner. They
have four corner towers and the halls have three tiers. The rafters, eaves,
ridgepoles, and roof beams are carved with strange figures. The doors, win-
dows, and walls are painted with colored pictures. The houses of the common
people are ostentatious inside but plain and simple outside.

The inner chambers and main halls vary in their dimensions and the struc-
tures of the tiered terraces and multistoried pavilions have no fixed style, but
the doors open to the east and the throne also faces east. For a seat on which
to rest a rope bed (charpoy) is used. The royal family, great personages, offi-
cials, commoners, and magnates adorn their seats in different ways, but the
structure is the same in style. The sovereign’s throne is exceedingly high and
wide and decorated with pearls. Called the lion seat, it is covered with fine
cotton cloth and is mounted by means of a jeweled footstool. The ordinary
officials carve their seats in different decorative patterns according to their
fancy and they ornament them with rare gems. Both the upper [clothes] and
undergarments, as well as ornamental garb, need no tailoring. Pure white is

Fascicle II

the preferred color, while motley is held in no account. The men wind a piece
of cloth around the waist under the armpits and leave the right shoulder
uncovered. The women wear a cape that covers both shoulders and hangs
down loose. The hair on the top is combed into a small topknot with the rest
of the hair falling down. Some men clip their mustaches and have other
strange fashions, such as wearing a garland on the head or a necklace on the
body. For clothing they use kauseya and cotton cloth, kauseya being silk
spun by wild silkworms. The ksauma (linen) cloth is made of hemp or similar
fibers. The kambala is woven with fine sheep wool, while the hela cape (a
sort of raincoat?) is woven with the wool of a wild animal. As this wool is
fine and soft and can be spun and woven, it is valued for making garments.

In North India, where the climate is bitterly cold, the people wear tight-
fitting short Jackets, quite similar to those of the Hu people. The costumes
of the heretics vary in style and are strangely made. They dress in peacock
tails, or wear necklaces of skulls, or go naked, or cover their bodies with
grass or boards, or pluck their hair and clip their mustaches, or have disheveled
hair with a small topknot. Their upper [clothes] and undergarments have no
fixed style and the color may be red or white; there is no definite rule.

The monks have only the three regular robes, [the samghati,] the
samkaksika, and the nivasana robes as their religious garments. The different
sects have different ways of making the three robes, of which the fringes
may be broad or narrow and the folds may be small or large. The samkaksika
(known in Chinese as “armpit cover" and formerly transcribed as sengqizhi
incorrectly) covers the left shoulder and veils both armpits. It is open on the
left and closed on the right side, reaching below the waist. Since the nivasana
(known in Chinese as "skirt" and formerly transcribed as niepanseng incor-
rectly) has no strings for fastening; it is worn by gathering it into pleats,
which are tightened with a braid. The pleats are folded in different ways by
different sects and the color also differs, either yellow or red. People of the
ksatriya (military and ruling class) and the brahman (priestly class) castes
are pure and simple in lodging and clean and frugal. The dress and ornaments
of the kings and ministers are very ostentatious. Garlands and coronets studded
with gems are their headdresses, and rings, bracelets, and necklaces are their
bodily ornaments. The wealthy merchants use only bracelets. Most people
go barefoot; few wear shoes. They stain their teeth red or black, have closely

876c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

cropped hair, pierce their earlobes, and have long noses and large eyes. Such
are their outward features.

They voluntarily keep themselves pure and clean, not by compulsion.
Before taking a meal they must wash their hands. Remnants and leftovers
are not to be served again and food vessels are not passed from one person
to another. Earthenware and wooden utensils must be discarded after use,
and golden, silver, copper, or iron vessels are polished each time after use.
When the meal is over they chew willow twigs to cleanse [their mouths],
and before washing and rinsing their mouths they do not come into contact
with one another. Each time after going to defecate or urinate they must wash
themselves and daub their bodies with a fragrant substance, such as sandal-
wood or turmeric. When the monarch is going to take a bath music made by
beating drums and playing stringed instruments 1s performed, along with
singing. Before offering sacrifices to gods and worshiping at temples they
take baths and wash themselves.

It is known that their writing, composed of forty-seven letters, was invented
by the deva Brahma as an original standard for posterity. These letters are
combined to indicate objects and used as expressions for events. The original
[language] branched as it gradually became widely used, and there are slight
modifications of it according to place and people. As a language in general,
it did not deviate from the original source. The people of Central India are
particularly accurate and correct in speech, and their expressions and tones
are harmonious and elegant like the language of the devas. They speak accu-
rately in a clear voice and serve as a standard for other people. The people
of neighboring lands and foreign countries became accustomed to speaking
in erroneous ways until their mistakes became accepted as correct, and they
vied with one another in emulating vulgarities, not sticking to the pure and
simple style.

As regards their records of sayings and events, there are separate depart-
ments in charge of them. The annals and royal edicts are collectively called
Nilapita (Blue Collection), in which good and bad events are recorded, and
calamities as well as auspicious signs are noted down in detail. To begin the
education of their children and induce them to make progress, they first guide
them to learn the Book of Twelve Chapters; and when the children reach the
age of seven, the great treatises ofthe five knowledges are gradually imparted

Fascicle II

to them. The first is the knowledge of grammar, which explains the meanings
of words and classifies them into different groups. The second is the knowl-
edge of technical skills, which teaches arts and mechanics, the principles of
yin and yang (negativity and positivity), and calendrical computation. The
third is the knowledge of medicine, including the application of incantation,
exorcism, drugs, stone needles, and moxibustion. The fourth is the knowledge
of logic, by which orthodox and heterodox are ascertained and truth is dif-
ferentiated from falsehood. The fifth is the inner knowledge, which thoroughly
investigates the teachings of the five vehicles and the subtle theory of cause
and effect.

The brahmans study the Four Vedas (formerly transcribed as Pituo incor-
rectly). The first treatise is on longevity, dealing with the preservation of
good health and the readjustment of mentality. The second is on worship,
that is, offering sacrifices and saying prayers. The third is on equity, concerning
ceremonial rituals, divination, military tactics, and battle formation. The
fourth is on practical arts, which teaches unusual abilities, crafts and numer-
ation, incantation, and medical prescriptions.

The teachers must be learned in the essence [of these treatises] and thor-
oughly master the profound mysteries. They expound the cardinal principles
[to the pupils] and teach them with succinct but penetrating expressions. The
teachers summon up their pupils’ energy to study and tactfully induce them
to progress. They instruct the dull and encourage the less talented. Those
disciples who are intelligent and acute by nature and have sensible views,
intending to live in seclusion, confine themselves, and lock the door against
the outside until they complete their studies. On reaching the age of thirty,
they have fixed their minds and gained achievements in learning. After having
been appointed to official posts, the first thing they do is to repay the kindness
of their teachers.

There are some people who are conversant with ancient lore and fond of
classic elegance, living in seclusion to preserve their uprightness. They drift
along the course of life without worldly involvement and remain free and
unfettered, above human affairs. They are indifferent to honor and humiliation
and their renown spreads far. The rulers, even while treating such people with
courtesy, cannot win them over to serve at court. But the state honors wise
and learned people and the [common] people respect those who are noble and

877a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

intelligent, according them high praise and treating them with perfect etiquette.
Therefore people can devote their attention to learning without feeling fatigue
and they travel about seeking knowledge and visiting masters of the Way in
order to rely on the virtuous ones, not counting a thousand /i as a long journey.
Although their families may be rich, such people make up their minds to live
wandering about the world, begging for their food wherever they go. They
value the acquisition of truth and do not deem poverty a disgrace. Those people
who lead a life of amusement and dissipation, eating delicious food and wearing
expensive garments, neither have virtue nor study constantly; they incur shame
and disgrace upon themselves and their ill repute spreads far and wide.

The Tathagata's teachings may be comprehended by each listener according
to his own type of mentality, and as we are now far away from the time of
the holy Buddha some of his right Dharma is still pure and some has become
defiled. With the faculty of understanding all people can acquire the enlight-
enment of wisdom. There are different sects, like peaks, standing against
each other and debating various viewpoints, as vehemently as crashing waves.
They study divergent specific subjects but they all lead to the same goal.
Each of the eighteen sects is expert in argumentation, using sharp and incisive
words. The manner of living of the Mahayana (Great Vehicle) followers and
that of the Hinayana (Small Vehicle) followers differ from each other. They
engage themselves in silent meditation, or in walking to and fro, or in standing
still. Samadhi (intense mental concentration) and prajnd (wisdom) are far
apart and noisiness and calmness are quite different. Each community of
monks has laid down its own restrictive rules and regulations. All texts,
whether belonging to the Vinaya (disciplinary rules), the Abhidharma (trea-
tises), or the Sutras (discourses), are scriptures of the Buddha. A monk who
can expound one text is exempted from routine monastic duties. One who
can expound two texts is supplied with additional good rooms and daily req-
uisites. One who can expound three texts is to be served by attendants. One
who can expound four texts is provided with lay servants at his service. One
who can expound five texts is entitled to ride an elephant when going out.
One who can expound six texts has a retinue protecting him.

The honor given to those who have high morality is also extraordinary.
Assemblies for discussion are often held to test the intellectual capacity of
the monks, in order to distinguish superior from inferior, and to reject the

Fascicle II

dull and promote the bright. Those who can deliberate on the subtle sayings
and glorify the wonderful theories with refined diction and quick eloquence
may ride richly caparisoned elephants, with hosts of attendants preceding
and following behind them. But those to whom the theories are taught in
vain, or who have been defeated in a debate, explaining few principles in a
verbose way or distorting the teachings with language that is merely pleasant
to the ear, are daubed with ocher or chalk on the face while dust is scattered
over the body, and they are exiled to the wilderness or discarded in ditches.
In this way the good and the evil are distinguished and the wise and the igno-
rant disclosed. Thus people may take delight in the Way and study diligently
at home. They may either forsake their homes or return to secular life, as
they please. To those who commit faults or violate the disciplinary rules, the
community of monks may mete out punishments. A light offense incurs
public reprimand, and the penalty for the next gravest offense is that the
monks do not speak to the offender. One who has committed a grave offense
is excommunicated; that is, he is expelled contemptuously by the community
of monks. Once expelled the offender will have nowhere to take shelter and
will suffer the hardships of a vagabond life, or he may return to his former
life as a layperson.

As far as the different clans are concerned, there are four castes among
the people. The first caste is that of the brahmans, who are pure in conduct,
adhere to their doctrines, live in chastity, and preserve their virtue in purity.
The second is the caste of ksatriyas (formerly transcribed incorrectly as
chali), who are royal descendants and rule the country, taking benevolence
and humanity as their objects in life. The third is the caste of vaisyas (formerly
transcribed incorrectly as pishe), who are merchants and traders, exchanging
goods to meet the needs of one another and gaining profit far and near. The
fourth caste 15 the sudras, farmers who labor in the fields and toil at sowing
and reaping. These four castes are differentiated by their hereditary purity
or defilement. People of a given caste marry within the caste and the con-
spicuous and the humble do not marry each other. Relatives, either on the
father's or the mother's side, do not intermarry. A woman can marry only
once and can never remarry. There are numerous miscellaneous clans grouped
together according to their [professional] categories, and it is difficult to give
a detailed account.

877b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The monarchs and kings of successive generations have always been
ksatriyas. When usurpation and regicide occasionally happened, other families
assumed supreme power. The warriors of the nation are well-chosen men of
extraordinary bravery and, as the occupation is hereditary, they become expe-
rienced in the art of war. In peacetime they guard the palace buildings and
in times of war they courageously forge ahead as the vanguard. The army is
composed of four types of troops, namely, infantry, cavalry, charioteers, and
elephant-mounted soldiers. The war elephant is covered with strong armor
and its tusks are armed with sharp barbs. The general who controls the armed
forces rides on it, with two soldiers walking on each side to manage the
animal. The chariot carrying the commander-in-chief is drawn by four horses
and arrays of soldiers march beside the wheels to protect him. The cavalrymen
spread open to draw up a defensive formation or gallop ahead to pursue the
defeated enemy. The infantry, daring men chosen for their boldness, go lightly
into battle, carrying large shields and long spears, sabers, or swords and dash-
ing to the front of the battle array. All their weapons are sharp and keen and
they have been trained in such weaponry as the spear, shield, bow and arrow,
saber, sword, battle axe, hatchet, dagger axe, long pole, long spear, discus,
rope, and the like, with which they practice generation after generation.

Although the people are violent and impetuous by temperament they are
plain and honest in nature. They never accept any wealth without considering
the propriety of the action but give others more than what is required by
righteousness. They fear retribution for sins in future lives and make light
of the benefits they enjoy in the present. They do not engage in treachery
and are creditable in keeping their promises.

Government administration emphasizes simplicity and honesty and the
people are amicable by social custom. There are occasionally criminals and
scoundrels who violate the national law or scheme to endanger the sovereign.
When the facts are discovered these criminals are often cast into jail, where
they are left to live or die; they are not sentenced to death but are no longer
regarded as members of human society. The punishment for those who infringe
the ethical code or behave against the principles of loyalty and filial piety is
to cut off the nose, excise an ear, mutilate a hand, or amputate a foot, or the
offender may be banished to another country or into the wilderness. Other
offenses can be expiated by a cash payment.

Fascicle II

When a judge hears a case no torture is inflicted upon the accused to extort
a confession. The accused answers whatever questions are put to him and
then a sentence is fairly passed, according to the facts. There are some who
refuse to admit their unlawful activities, ashamed of their faults, or who try
to cover up their mistakes. In order to ascertain the actual facts of a case
ordeals are required to justify a final judgment. There are four ways, namely,
ordeals by water, fire, weighing, and poison. In the ordeal by water the accused
person is put into a sack and a stone is put into another sack; the two sacks
are connected together and thrown into a deep river to discriminate the real
criminal from the suspect. If the person sinks and the stone floats his guilt
Is proven, but if the person floats and the stone sinks he is then judged as
having concealed nothing. In the ordeal by fire the accused is forced to crouch
on a piece of hot iron and required to stamp on it with his feet, to touch it
with his hands, and to lick it with his tongue. If the charge against him is
false he will not be harmed, but if he is burned he is judged to be the real
culprit. If a weak and feeble person cannot stand the heat of the scorching
iron, he is asked to scatter some flower buds over the hot iron. If he is falsely
charged the buds open into flowers, but if he is truly a criminal the buds are
burned. In the ordeal by weighing the accused is weighed on a balance against
a stone to determine which is heavier. If the charge is false the person goes
down, while the stone goes up; if the charge is true the stone is weightier
than the person. In the ordeal by poison the right hind leg of a black ram is
cut and poison is put into it as a portion for the accused to eat. If the charge
is true the person dies from the poison, but if the charge is false the poison
18 counteracted and the accused may survive. These four ordeals are the meth-
ods for the prevention of a hundred misdeeds.

There are nine grades in the manner of paying homage. They are (1) inquir-
ing after one's health, (2) bowing down three times to show respect, (3) bowing
with hands raised high, (4) bowing with hands folded before the chest, (5)
kneeling on one knee, (6) kneeling on both knees, (7) crouching with hands
and knees on the ground, (8) bowing down with hands, elbows, and head to
the ground, and (9) prostrating oneself with hands, elbows, and head touching
the ground. In all these nine grades the utmost veneration is expressed by
doing only one obeisance. To kneel down and praise the other's virtue is the
perfect form of veneration. If one is at a distance [from the venerated person],

877c

878a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

one just prostrates with folded hands. If a venerated person is nearby, one
kisses their feet and rubs their heels. When one is delivering messages or
receiving orders, he must hold up his robe and kneel. The honored person
who receives veneration must say some kind words in return, or stroke the
head or pat the back of the worshiper, giving him good words of admonition
to show his affection and kindness. When a homeless monk receives salutation
he expresses only his good wishes in return and never stops the worshiper
from paying homage to him. One often pays reverence to a great respected
master by circumambulating him once, thrice, or as many times as one wishes
if one has a special request in mind.

When a person is sick he refrains from eating food for seven days, and
during this period he may often recover his health. If he is not cured then he
takes medicine. Medicines are of various properties and have different names,
and physicians differ in medical technique and methods of diagnosis.

At a funeral ceremony the relatives of the departed one wail and weep,
rend their clothes and tear their hair, strike their foreheads, and beat their
chests. They do not wear mourning clothes and have no fixed period of
mourning. There are three kinds of burial service. The first is cremation, in
which a pyre is built and the body 1s burned. The second is water burial, in
which the corpse is put into a stream to be carried away. The third is wilderness
burial, in which the body is discarded in a forest to feed wild animals.

After the demise of a king, the first function is to enthrone the crown
prince so that he may preside over the funeral ceremony and fix the positions
of superiority and inferiority. Meritorious titles are conferred on a king while
he is living and no posthumous appellations are given after his death. No
one goes to take a meal at a house where the people are suffering the pain
of bereavement, but when the funeral service is over things go back to normal
and there are no taboos. Those who have taken part in a funeral procession
are considered unclean and they must all bathe themselves outside the city
before reentering the city walls.

As regards those who are getting very old, approaching the time of death,
suffering from incurable disease, or fearing that life is drawing to an end,
they become disgusted with this world, desire to cast off human life, despise
mortal existence, and wish to get rid of the ways of the world. Their relatives
and friends then play music to hold a farewell party, put them in a boat, and

Fascicle II

row them to the middle of the Ganges River so that they may drown them-
selves in the river. It is said that they will thus be reborn in the heavens. Out
of ten people only one cherishes such ideas, and so far I have not seen this
with my own eyes.

According to monastic regulations, homeless monks should not lament
over the deaths of their parents but should recite and chant scriptures in mem-
ory of their kindness, so as to be in keeping with the funeral rites and impart
happiness to the departed souls.

As the government is liberal official duties are few. There is no census
registration and no corvée labor is imposed upon the people. Royal lands are
roughly divided into four divisions. The first division is used by the state to
defray the expense of offering sacrifices to gods and ancestors, the second
division is used for bestowing fiefs to the king's assistants and ministers, the
third division is for giving rewards to prominent and intelligent scholars of
high talent, and the fourth division is for making meritorious donations to
various heterodox establishments. Therefore taxation is light and forced labor
rarely levied. Everyone keeps to his hereditary occupation and all people
cultivate the portions of land allotted to them per capita. Those who till the
king's fields pay one-sixth of their crops as rent. Also, in order to gain profits
merchants and traders travel about exchanging commodities and they pay
light duties at ferries and barriers to pass through. For public construction
no forced labor is enlisted; laborers are paid according to the work they have
done. Soldiers are dispatched to garrison outposts and palace guards are con-
scripted according to circumstances, and rewards are announced in order to
obtain applicants. Magistrates and ministers, as well as common government
officials and assistants, all have their portions of land so that they may sustain
themselves by the fief they have been granted.

As the climate and soil vary in different places, the natural products also
differ in various districts. There are diverse descriptions of flowers, herbs,
fruit, and trees with different names, such as amra (mango), amla (tamarind),
madhüka (licorice), badara (jujube), kapittha (wood apple), amalaka
(myrobalan), tinduka (Diospyros), udumbara (Ficus glomerata), moca (plan-
tain), narikera (coconut), and panasa (jackfruit). It is difficult to give a full
list of such fruit [trees], and here I just mention a few of them that are valued
by the people. Dates, chestnuts, and green and red persimmons are unknown

878b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

in India. Pears, crabapples, peaches, apricots, and grapes are often alternately
grown in Kasmira and elsewhere, while pomegranates and sweet oranges
are planted in all countries.

In the cultivation of fields, such farm work as sowing and reaping, plough-
ing and weeding, and seeding and planting are done according to the seasons,
either laboriously or with ease. Among the native products, rice and wheat
are particularly abundant. As for vegetables, there are ginger, mustard, melon,
calabash, and kanda (beet). Onion and garlic are scarce and few people eat
them. Those who eat them are driven out of the city.

Milk, ghee, oil, butter, granulated sugar, rock candy, mustard-seed oil,
and various kinds of cakes and parched grainse are used as common food,
and fish, mutton, and venison are occasionally served as delicacies. The meat
of such animals as oxen, donkeys, elephants, horses, pigs, dogs, foxes, wolves,
lions, monkeys, and apes is not to be eaten, as a rule. Those who eat the meat
of such animals are despised and detested by the general public and the
offenders are expelled to the outskirts of the city; they rarely show themselves
among the people.

As regards different spirits and sweet wines of diverse tastes, drinks made
from grapes and sugarcane are for the ksatriyas and fermented spirits and
unfiltered wines are for the vaisyas to drink. The sramanas and brahmans
drink grape and sugarcane juice, as they refrain from taking alcoholic bev-
erages. For the low and mixed castes there are no specific drinks.

As to household implements, there are different articles made of various
materials for various purposes. Miscellaneous necessities are always suffi-
ciently at hand. Although cauldrons and big pots are used for cooking the
rice steamer is unknown. Cooking utensils are mostly made of earthenware,
with a few made of brass. When taking a meal a person eats from one vessel
in which all the ingredients are mixed together. He takes the food with his
fingers, never using spoons or chopsticks; the aged and the sick use copper
spoons for eating food.

Gold, silver, brass, white jade, and crystal are local products, which are
amassed in large quantities. Precious substances and rare treasures of different
descriptions, procured from overseas, are commodities for trading. For the
exchange of goods, gold and silver coins, cowries, and small pearls are used
as the media of exchange.

Fascicle II

The territories and boundaries of India have been described above and
different local conditions have been briefly related here. I have made only a
rough statement of what is common in all the regions of the country in a gen-
eralized manner. As regards the particular political administrations and social
customs of different regions, I shall explain them separately under the heading
of each country, as follows.

The country of Lampa is over one thousand /i in circuit, with the Snow Moun-
tains at its back in the north and the Black Range on the other three sides. The
capital city is more than ten /i in circuit. Several hundred years ago the royal
family of this country ceased to exist and since then powerful families have
competed with each other for superiority in the absence of a great monarch.
It has recently become a dependency of Kapist. The country produces non-
glutinous rice and much sugarcane. There are many trees but little fruit. The
climate is temperate; there is little frost and no snow. The country is a rich
and happy land and the people are fond of singing and chanting, but they are
timid and deceitful by nature. They cheat and do not respect one another. They
are ugly and short in stature and are frivolous and impetuous in behavior.
They mostly wear white cotton and are nicely dressed. There are more than
ten monasteries with a few monks, most of whom are students of the Mahayana
teachings. There are several tens of deva temples with many heretics.

From here going southeast for over one hundred /i, I crossed a high mountain
and a large river and then arrived in the country of Nagarahara (in North
India). This country is over six hundred /i from east to west and two hundred
fifty or sixty /i from south to north. It is surrounded by steep and dangerous
precipices on all sides. The capital city is more than twenty /i in circuit. There
is no sovereign king to rule over the country and it belongs to Kapiši as a
vassal state. Grain and fruit are produced in abundance and the climate is
moderately warm. The people are simple and honest, as well as courageous
and valiant. They do not value wealth but esteem learning and they venerate
the buddha-dharma, though a few have faith in heretical religions. There are
many monasteries but few monks. All the stupas are deserted and in dilapi-
dated condition. There are five deva temples with over a hundred heretics.

Two li to the east of the capital city there is a stupa built by King Asoka
that is over three hundred feet high with piled-up stones, on which there are

878c

879a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

marvelous sculptures. This was the place where [in a former life] Sakya
Bodhisattva once met Dipamkara Buddha and spread a piece of deerskin and
his own hair to cover the muddy ground [for Dipamkara to tread on], and
received a prediction of buddhahood from him. Although it has passed through
a kalpa of destruction the ancient trace remains intact. On fast days various
kinds of flowers descend on the spot and multitudes of the common people
vie with one another in making offerings [to the stupa]. In a monastery to
the west of the stupa there are a few monks. Further to the south, a small
stupa marks the spot where the Bodhisattva covered up the muddy ground
in a former life. It was erected by King Asoka at a secluded place to avoid
the highway.

Inside the capital city there are the old foundations of a great stupa. I heard
the local people say that it had formerly contained a tooth relic ofthe Buddha
and that it was originally a tall and magnificent structure. Now there is no
more tooth relic and only the old foundations remain there. Beside them
there is a stupa more than thirty feet high whose origin is unknown, according
to local tradition. The people said that it dropped down from the air and took
root at the spot. It was not built by human beings and it manifested many
spiritual signs.

Over ten /i to the southwest of the capital city there is a stupa that marks
the spot where the Tathagata once alighted during his flight from Central
India on his travels to seek edification. Moved by the event, the people of
the country built the base of this spiritual stupa out of admiration. Not far
away to the east there is a stupa marking the place where Sakya Bodhisattva
met Dipamkara Buddha in a former life and purchased some flowers [to offer
to the buddha].

More than twenty /i to the southwest of the capital city one reaches a
small range of rocky hills where there is a monastery with lofty halls and
multistoried pavilions, all constructed out of rocks. The buildings were all
quiet and silent and not a single monk was to be found. Within the compound
of the monastery there was a stupa more than two hundred feet high, built
by King Asoka.

To the southwest of the monastery is a deep gully with overhanging rocks
[on each side], from which water falls down the wall-like precipices. On the
rocky wall at the east precipice is a large cave that was the dwelling place

Fascicle II

of the naga Gopala. The entrance is small and narrow and it 1s dark inside
the cave; water drips from the rocks down to the mountain path. Formerly
there was a shadowy image of the Buddha, resembling his true features with
all the good physical marks, just as if he were alive. But in recent years it is
not visible to everyone and even those who see it can only perceive an indis-
tinct outline. Those who pray with utmost sincerity may get a spiritual response
and see a clear picture, but only for a brief instant.

When the Tathagata was living in the world the naga was a cowherd whose
duty was to supply the king with milk and cream. Once he failed to fulfill
his task properly and was reprimanded by the king. With a feeling of hatred
and malice, he purchased some flowers to offer to the stupa of prediction, in
the hope that he might be reborn as an evil naga to devastate the country and
do harm to the king. Then he went up to the rocky precipice and jumped
down to kill himself. Thus he became a naga king and lived in this cave. The
moment he desired to go out of the cave to carry out his evil wishes, the
Tathagata, with a mind of compassion for the people of the country, who
would suffer havoc caused by the naga, arrived from Central India, flying
through his supernatural power. At the sight of the Tathagata the naga's
malignant mind ceased. He accepted the rule of non-killing and wished to
protect the right Dharma. So he requested that the Tathagata dwell in the
cave permanently and [promised] to always offer alms to all his saintly dis-
ciples. The Tathagata said to him, “I shall enter nirvana but I will leave my
shadow behind for you, and I will send five arhats to always receive your
offerings. Even when the right Dharma has disappeared into oblivion this
arrangement will not be altered. If your malignant mind becomes agitated
you should look at my shadow and, on account of your compassion and
benevolence, your malignant mind will come to an end. During this bhadra-
kalpa (“good eon") all the future World-honored Ones will have compassion
for you and leave their shadows behind."

Outside the door of Shadow Cave there are two square rocks. On one of
the rocks is the trace of the Tathagata's footprint with the wheel sign dimly
visible and it sometimes emits a light. On either side of Shadow Cave there
are many other caves, which are the places where the saintly disciples of the
Tathagata used to sit in meditation. On a corner to the northwest of the Shadow
Cave there is a stupa that marks the place where the Tathagata once took a

879b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

walk. Beside it is another stupa, in which are stored the relics of the Tathagata's
hair and nail parings. Not far from here another stupa marks the spot where
the Tathagata preached on the true doctrine of the skandhas (five attributes
of being), the ayatanas (twelve sense fields), and the dhatus (eighteen spheres,
consisting of the six sense organs, the six sense objects, and the six con-
sciousnesses). To the west of Shadow Cave there is a large flat rock on which
the Tathagata once washed his robe; the traces of the robe left on the rock
are still dimly visible.

At more than thirty /i to the southeast of the city one reaches the city of
Hilo, which is four or five /i in circuit; [its city wall] is high, precipitous, and
impregnable. There are flowers, trees, and pools with pure water as bright
as a mirror. The inhabitants ofthe city are simple and honest and they believe
in the right Dharma. There is a multistoried pavilion with colorfully painted
beams and pillars. On the second story is a small stupa made of the seven
precious substances, in which is preserved a piece of the Tathagata's skull
bone, twelve inches in circumference with distinct hair pores, yellowish-
white in color, which is contained in a precious casket that has been placed
inside the stupa. Those who wish to tell their fortunes may prepare some fra-
grant plaster to make an impression of the skull bone and then read a clear
written prediction according to the effects of their blessedness. There is
another small stupa made of the seven precious substances in which is stored
the Tathagata's cranial bone, which has the shape of a lotus leaf and is of the
same color as the skull bone. It is also contained in a precious casket that
has been sealed up and placed [in the stupa]. There is another small stupa
made of the seven precious substances, in which is preserved an eyeball of
the Tathagata, as large as a crabapple, brilliant and transparent throughout.
It is also contained in a precious casket that has been sealed up and placed
[in the stupa]. The Tathagata's upper robe, made of fine cotton in a yellow-
ish-red color, is placed in a precious casket. It has lasted a long time and is
slightly damaged. The Tathagata's pewter staff, with rings made of pewter
and a sandalwood handle, is stored in a precious tube.

Recently a king heard that these relics belonged to the Tathagata and he
captured them by force. After returning to his own country the king kept the
relics in his palace but less than twelve days later the relics were lost. When
he searched for them he found that they had returned to their original location.

Fascicle II

These five holy objects have shown many spiritual signs. The king of Kapist
ordered five attendants to take care of the relics by offering incense and flowers,
and worshipers came to pay reverence to them without cease. The attendants,
wishing to spend their time in quietude and thinking that people would value
money more than anything else, in order to stop the hubbub caused by visitors,
made a rule to the effect that one gold coin would be charged to see the skull
bone and five gold coins would be charged for making an impression. This
rule was also applicable in different grades to the other relics. Even with
these steep fees the number of worshipers increased.

To the northwest of the storied pavilion there is a stupa that is also very
lofty and has shown many marvelous signs. When it is touched with a finger
it shakes down to the basement and its bells ring harmoniously.

From here going toward the southeast among mountains and valleys for over
five hundred /i, I reached the country of Gandhara (at former times incorrectly
transcribed as Qiantuowei, in the domain of North India). The country of
Gandhara is more than one thousand /i from east to west and over eight hundred
li from south to north, with the Indus on the east. The capital city, called
Purusapura, is more than forty /i in circuit. The royal family is extinct and the
country is now under the domination of Kapisi. The towns and villages аге
desolate and have few inhabitants. In one corner of the palace city there are
over one thousand families. They produce abundant cereals and have flowers
and fruit in profusion. The country grows much sugarcane and produces sugar
candy. The climate is mild and there is scarcely any frost or snow. The people
are shy and timid by nature and are fond of literature and the arts. Most of
them respect heretical religions; only a few believe in the right Dharma.

Since ancient times masters who wrote commentaries and theoretical trea-
tises in India, such as Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata,
Manoratha, Par$va, and so on, have been born in this country. There were
more than a thousand monasteries but they are now dilapidated and deserted,
in desolate condition. Most of the stupas are also in ruins. There are about a
hundred deva temples inhabited by various heretics.

To the northeast inside the royal city there are the remains of the foundation
of a precious terrace on which the Buddha’s almsbowl was once placed. After
the Tathagata's demise the bowl was brought to this country, where it was

879c

880a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

venerated with formal rituals for several hundred years, and then it was brought
to various countries. It is now in Persia. At a distance of eight or nine /i to the
southeast outside the city, there is a pipal tree more than one hundred feet tall
with profuse branches and leaves that cast a dense shade on the ground. The
four past buddhas sat under this tree and now statues of the four buddhas are
still to be seen there. The remaining nine hundred and ninety-six buddhas of
the bhadrakalpa will also sit under it, divinely guarded and protected by gods
and deities. Once, when Sakya Tathagata was sitting under this tree, facing
south, he told Ananda, “Four hundred years after my demise there will be a
king named Kaniska, who will erect a stupa not far south of here. Most of my
bodily remains will be collected in it."

To the south ofthe pipal tree there is a stupa constructed by King Kaniska.
In the four hundredth year after the Tathagata's demise King Kaniska ascended
the throne and ruled over Jambudvipa. He did not [originally] believe in the
theory of retribution for good and evil deeds and contemptuously defamed
the buddha-dharma. Once he was hunting in a marsh when a white hare
appeared. The king chased after the hare and it suddenly disappeared at this
place. In the woods he saw a young cowherd building a small stupa three
feet high. The king asked the boy, “What are you doing?" The boy replied,
“Formerly Sakya Buddha made a wise prediction: ‘A king will build a stupa
at this auspicious place and most of my bodily remains will be collected in
it.” Your Majesty’s holy virtues were cultivated in your previous lives and
your name coincides with the one mentioned in the prediction. Your divine
merits and superior blessedness will be realized at this time. Thus I am here
as a preliminary sign to remind you of the prediction." With these words,
the cowherd vanished.

Upon hearing these words the king was overjoyed and was proud to know
that his name had been predicted by the Great Sage in his prophecy. Thereafter
he professed the right faith and deeply believed in the buddha-dharma. Around
the small stupa he built a stone stupa, wishing to encompass the smaller one,
through the power of his merit. But no matter how tall he built the stone stupa
the smaller one was always three feet higher, until the larger stupa reached
over four hundred feet in height, standing on a base one and a half /i in circuit,
with five flights of steps leading up to a height of one hundred fifty feet, so
that it then covered the small stupa. Delighted, the king also had gilded copper

Fascicle II

disks arranged in twenty-five tiers on the top. Then he placed one Ли (hectoliter)
of the Tathagata's relic bones in the stupa, to which he piously made offerings.
When construction of the large stupa had just been completed the king saw
that the small stupa was protruding, with half of its structure sideways at the
southeast corner of the base [of the great stupa]. Enraged, the kinf threw the
smaller stupa upward and it stayed there, half of it appearing in the stone base
under the second flight of steps ofthe stupa, but another small stupa emerged
at the original place. The king then gave up and remarked with a sigh, “Human
affairs are bewildering but the merits of deities are insuppressible. What is
the use of being angry with it, if it is supported by the gods?" Ashamed and
fearful, the king apologized and returned home.

These two stupas still stand. Those who are ill and wish to pray for recovery
offer incense and flowers to the stupas with pious minds, and in most cases
they are cured. On the southern side of the flight of steps at the east of the
great stupa there are two carved stupas, one three and the other five feet high,
in the same style and shape as the great stupa. There are also two carved
images of the Buddha, one four and the other six feet in height, resembling
the Buddha sitting cross-legged under the bodhi tree. In the sunshine these
images are of a dazzling golden color, and when they are gradually covered
by shade the lines on the stone become bluish-violet in color. Some local old
people said that several hundred years ago there were golden-colored ants
in the crevice of the stone; the big ones were the size of a fingernail and the
small ones were the size of a grain of wheat. Following one another, they
gnawed at the surface of the stone and the lines they made on the stone looked
like incised grooves that were filled with golden sand to delineate the images,
which are still in existence.

On the south side of the flight of steps leading up to the great stupa there
is a painting of the Buddha sixteen feet in height, with two busts above the
chest but only one body below it. Some old people said that there was formerly
a poor man who sustained himself by working as a laborer. Once he earned
a gold coin and wished to make an image of the Buddha. He came to the
stupa and said to a painter, “I wish to make a portrait of the Tathagata’s excel-
lent features but I have only one gold coin, which is really insufficient for
remuneration. This has been my long-cherished desire but I am poor and
lack money.” In consideration of the poor man's sincerity, the painter did

880b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

not argue about the payment and promised to accomplish the job. Another
man under the same circumstances came with a gold coin to request the
painter to draw a portrait of the Buddha. Thus the painter accepted the money
from both men and he asked another skillful painter to work together with
him in drawing a single portrait. When the two men came on the same day
to worship the Buddha, the two painters showed them the portrait, pointing
at it and saying, "This is the portrait you ordered." The two men looked at
each other, bewildered. The painters realized that they were doubtful about
the matter and said to them, ^Why are you pondering the matter for so long?
Whatever object we undertake to produce is done without the slightest fault.
If our words are not false the portrait will show miracles." As soon as they
had uttered these words the portrait manifested a wonder: the body split
into two busts, while the shadows intermingled into one, with the features
shining brilliantly. The two men were happily convinced and delightedly
fostered faith.

More than a hundred paces to the southwest of the great stupa there is a
standing image of the Buddha made of white stone, eighteen feet high, facing
north. It often worked miracles and frequently emitted light. Sometimes
people see it walking at night and circumambulating the great stupa. Recently
a band of robbers intended to enter the stupa to steal the contents. The image
came out to meet the robbers head-on and the robbers withdrew in fear. Then
the image returned to its original place and stood there as usual. Thereafter
the robbers corrected their error and made a fresh start in life. They walked
about in towns and villages and related the event to all people, far and near.

At the left and right sides of the great stupa there are hundreds of small
stupas, arranged as closely together as the scales of a fish. The Buddha's
images are magnificent, having been made with perfect craftsmanship.
Unusual fragrances and strange sounds are sometimes perceived and spirits
and genies, as well as holy ones, may be seen circumambulating the great
stupa. The Tathagata predicted that when this stupa has burned down and
been rebuilt seven times, the buddha-dharma will come to an end. Previous
sages have recorded that it has been destroyed and reconstructed three times.
When I first came to this country the stupa had just suffered the disaster of
conflagration. It is now under repair and the structure is not yet completed.

Fascicle II

To the west of the great stupa there is an old monastery built by King
Kaniska. The multistoried pavilion and the houses built on terraces were
constructed so that eminent monks could be invited in recognition of their
distinguished merits. Although the buildings are dilapidated they can still be
regarded as wonderful constructions. There are a few monks who study the
Hinayana teachings. Since the monastery was constructed it has produced
extraordinary personages from time to time, who were either writers of trea-
tises or people who realized sainthood. The influence of their pure conduct
and perfect virtue is still functioning.

On the third story of the pavilion is the room used by Venerable Parsva
(“Ribs”). It has been in ruins for a long time but its location is indicated with
a mark. The venerable monk was a brahmanical teacher but he became a
Buddhist monk at the age of eighty. Some young people in the city sneered
at him, saying, “You stupid old man, why are you so ignorant? A Buddhist
monk has two duties: first to practice meditation and second to recite scriptures.
Now you are getting old and feeble and cannot make any more progress. So
you are trying to pass yourself off as a monk among the pure mendicants but
you do nothing but eat your fill."

Having heard this reproach, Venerable Parsva apologized to the people
and made a vow, saying, “If I do not thoroughly master the teachings of the
Tripitaka and do not cut off all desires of the three realms of the world, so
as to realize the six supernatural powers and possess the eight emancipations,
I shall not lie down to sleep with my ribs touching the mat." He then worked
hard and always meditated whether he was walking, sitting, or standing still.
In the daytime he studied theories and doctrines and at night he sat quietly
in meditation with a concentrated mind. In three years’ time he completely
mastered the Tripitaka, cut off the desires of the three realms of the world,
and obtained the wisdom of the three knowledges. As the people respected
him, they called him Venerable Ribs (Par$va).

To the east of Venerable Par$va's chamber there is an old room in which
Vasubandhu Bodhisattva composed the Abhidharmakosa-sastra. Out of
respect for him the people had the room sealed and indicated by a mark.

On the second story of the pavilion, at a place more than fifty paces to
the south of Vasubandhu Bodhisattva's room, is the place where the Sastra

880c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

master Manoratha (“As You Wish") composed the Vibhasa-sastra. The sastra
master was born a thousand years after the nirvana of the Buddha. When he
was young he loved learning and was eloquent in speech. His fame spread
far and both clerics and laypeople had faith in him. At that time the influence
of King Vikramaditya (“Valor Sun") of Śrāvastī reached far and he brought
the various parts of India under his domination. Every day he distributed five
lakhs of gold coins as alms to paupers, orphans, and the solitary. The state
treasurer, fearing that the national treasury would be exhausted, ironically
remonstrated with the king, saying, “Your Majesty's strong influence extends
to various peoples and your kindness benefits even insects. Pray spend five
more lakhs of gold coins to relieve the poor and needy of the four quarters.
When the treasury is exhausted we can levy more taxes and repeated taxation
will arouse the people's resentment and grievance everywhere, but the monarch
above may show off his kindness in bestowing charity upon the people and
we subjects below will bear the blame of being disrespectful." The king said,
“We collect surplus money to give to those who are short of it, it is not for
ourselves that we squander the national wealth." Thus five lakhs of gold coins
were added to the sum of money given to the poor and needy.

Later, while out hunting, the king lost the trace of a wild boar and a man
who found the animal was granted a reward of one lakh of gold coins. Now
when the sastra master Manoratha once had his hair shaved, he paid the
barber one /akh of gold coins and the state annalist accordingly put the event
on record. The king was ashamed to have been surpassed by a monk in lav-
ishing money and intended to insult the sastra master Manoratha in public.
Thus he summoned a hundred heretical teachers of high virtue and deep
learning, to whom he issued an order, saying, “We wish to glean various
views to find out the truth but different schools have different theories, so
we do not know where to fix our mind. Now we wish to see which of your
schools is superior and which is inferior, so that we may know which way
we should follow exclusively."

At the time the discussion was held the king issued another order, saying,
“These heretical sastra masters are brilliant and talented scholars and the sra-
manas of the Dharma should master their own theories well. If they win in
the debate we shall venerate the buddha-dharma; otherwise we will slaughter
the Buddhist monks." Then Manoratha debated with the heretics and defeated

Fascicle II

ninety-nine of the opponents, who fled in retreat. He slighted the last antagonist
with contempt and talked with him fluently. When he came to the subject of
fire and smoke, the king and the heretic said aloud, “The sastra master
Manoratha has made a faulty statement. It is common sense that smoke pre-
cedes fire." Although Manoratha wished to explain his viewpoint no one
would listen to his argumentation. Ashamed of being insulted in public, he
bit off his tongue and wrote a letter to his disciple Vasubandhu, saying,
“Among groups supported by factions one cannot hold a great principle in
competition, and in an assembly of ignorant people there is no way to argue
for the right theory." He died after having written these words.

Not long afterward, King Vikramaditya lost his kingdom and was suc-
ceeded by another king who adored and respected people of eminence and
wisdom. Wishing to rehabilitate his teacher's good name, Vasubandhu Bodhi-
sattva came to the new king and said to him, “Your Majesty rules the kingdom
with your saintly virtues and you render support to all living beings. My late
teacher Manoratha was learned in abstruse and profound theories but the
previous king held a grudge against him and besmirched his good name in
public. As I have studied under his instruction I wish to avenge the wrong
done to my teacher."

The king, knowing that Manoratha had been a wise man and appreciating
Vasubandhu's upright character, summoned all the heretics who had debated
with Manoratha to a meeting. Vasubandhu then reiterated what his teacher
had expounded and all the heretics were defeated and withdrew.

Going to the northeast for more than fifty /i from the monastery built by
King Kaniska, I crossed a large river and reached the city of Puskaravati,
which is fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit. It is well populated and the lanes
and alleys are connected with each other. Outside the west gate of the city
there is a deva temple, in which the deva image is austere in appearance
and often works miracles. To the east of the city there is a stupa built by
King A$oka. It marks the place where the four past buddhas preached the
Dharma. Ancient saints and sages coming from Central India to subdue
divine beings and teach human mortals at this place were very numerous.
It was at this site that the sastra master Vasumitra (Shiyou in Chinese, for-
merly transcribed erroneously as Hexumiduo) composed the Abhidharma-
prakarana-pada-sastra.

881a

881b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Four or five /i to the north of the city there is an old monastery whose
buildings are in desolation, with a few resident monks who are followers of
Hinayana teachings. This is the place where the sastra master Dharmatrata
(known as Fajiu in Chinese and erroneously transcribed as Damoduoluo in
olden times) composed the Abhidharmatabhidharma-hrdaya-sastra. Beside
the monastery there is a stupa several hundred feet high built by King Asoka.
The wood carvings and stone sculptures are quite different from work done
by human artisans. Formerly, when Sakya Buddha was a king, he practiced
the way of the bodhisattva at this place and gave alms tirelessly to all living
beings according to their wishes. He was the king of this land for one thousand
lives, and it was at this auspicious place where he surrendered his eyes in
one thousand lives.

Not far east of where Sakya Buddha forsook his eyes there are two stone
stupas, both more than one hundred feet high. The one on the right was
erected by Brahma and the one on the left by Indra, and both are beautifully
decorated with wonderful jewels and gems. After the demise of the Tathagata
the gems turned into stone. Although the foundations have sunk the stupas
still stand high and lofty.

More than fifty /i to the northwest ofthe stupas built by Brahma and Indra
there is a stupa that marks the place where Sakya Tathagata converted the
goddess Hartti to prevent her from doing harm to people. Thus it became the
custom of the country to pray to the goddess for offspring.

More than fifty li to the north of the place where Hariti was converted,
there is a stupa built at the spot where Syamaka Bodhisattva (formerly tran-
scribed incorrectly as Shanmo Bodhisattva) gathered fruit to offer to his blind
parents in fulfillment of his filial duty, and he met the king who was hunting
and who accidentally hit him with a poisoned arrow. Indra, moved by Sya-
maka’s mind of sincerity, dressed the wound with medicine and his virtuous
deed inspired the gods, who restored him to life very quickly.

Going to the southeast for more than two hundred /i from the place where
Syamaka Bodhisattva was injured, I reached the city of Varga. To the north
of the city there is a stupa built at the place where Prince Sudana (“Good
Tooth” [sic]) said farewell to his countrymen at the city gate when he was
banished from the city, and apologized to the people for having given his
father’s elephant as a gift to a brahman. In the monastery beside the stupa

Fascicle II

there are more than fifty monks, all of whom are followers of the Hinayana
teachings. It was at this place that the sastra master I$vara (“Self-existence”)
composed the Abhidharmadipa-sastra.

Outside the east gate of Varsa there is a monastery with more than fifty
monks, all of whom are followers of the Mahayana teachings. There is a
stupa built by King Asoka. Formerly, when Prince Sudana was living in exile
at Dandaloka Mountain (formerly known as Tante Mountain erroneously),
a brahman begged for his sons and wife and then sold them at this place.

At a place more than twenty /i to the northeast from Varsa one reaches
Dandaloka Mountain. On the ridge there is a stupa built by King Ašoka to
mark the place where Prince Sudana once lived in seclusion. Not far away
there is another stupa, built at the spot where the prince gave away his sons
and wife to a brahman. The brahman beat the prince's sons and wife until
their blood ran to the ground and stained the earth. Even now the grass and
plants still retain a reddish hue. The cave on the cliff was the place where
the prince and his wife practiced meditation. The branches of the trees in the
valley droop like curtains, and the prince used to roam about here. Nearby
is a stone hermitage that was the abode of an ancient rs; (sagely anchorite).

At more than one hundred /i to the northwest from the hermitage one
crosses over a small hill and arrives at a large mountain. On the south of the
mountain there is a monastery, in which lived a few monks who studied
Mahayana teachings. The stupa beside it was built by King A$oka at the
place where the rsi Unicorn once lived. This rsi was ensnared by a lustful
woman and lost his supernatural powers. The lustful woman then rode on
his shoulders and returned to the city.

At more than fifty /i to the northeast from Varsa one reaches a lofty moun-
tain, on which there is a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi, wife of Mahesvara.
The local people said that this image of the goddess existed naturally. It
showed many marvels and many people came to give prayers. In all parts of
India people, both noble and common, who wish to pray for blessedness
flock to this place from far and near. Those who wish to see the physical
form of the goddess may get a vision of her after fasting for seven days with
a sincere and concentrated mind, and in most cases their wishes will be ful-
filled. At the foot of the mountain there is a temple for Mahesvara in which
the ash-smearing heretics perform ceremonies.

881с

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Going for a hundred fifty li to the southeast from the Bhimadevi temple
I reached the city of Udakhand, which is more than twenty /i in circuit, bor-
dering the Indus River in the south. The inhabitants are rich and happy. Pre-
cious goods pile up high and most of the rare and valuable things of different
places are collected here.

Going for more than twenty /i to the northwest from Udakhand I reached
the city of Salatura, the birthplace of the rsi Panini, author of the Sabda-
vidya-sastra. At the beginning of antiquity the written language was rich and
extensive in vocabulary, but with the passage of the kalpa of destruction the
world became empty, and afterward the long-lived deities descended to the
earth to guide human beings. Thereafter, literary documents were produced,
and thenceforth the source of literature became a torrential flood. Brahma
and Indra wrote model compositions as the time required, and the rsis of
each of the heretical systems formed their own words. The people studied
what was taught by their predecessors and emulated what was handed down;
but the efforts of the students were wasted because it was difficult for them
to master everything in detail.

At the time when the human life span was a hundred years, the rsi Panini
was born with innate knowledge of wide scope. Feeling pity at the shallowness
of learning in his time, and wishing to expunge what was superficial and
false and delete what was superfluous, he traveled about to make inquiries
into the way of learning. He met with Mahesvara and told the deity of his
intention. Mahesvara said, “How grand it is! I shall render you assistance.”
The rsi withdrew after hearing these words and concentrated his mind to
ponder the matter. He collected all words and composed a text of one thousand
stanzas, each stanza consisting of thirty-two syllables. In this book he made
a thorough study of the written and spoken language of both ancient and mod-
ern times, and offered it to the king in a sealed envelope. The king treasured
it very much and ordered that all the people of the country should learn the
text; one who could recite it fluently by heart would be rewarded with a thou-
sand gold coins. Thus this text was transmitted from teacher to pupil and
became prevalent at that time. Henceforth the brahmans in this city are great
scholars of high talent with knowledge of wide scope.

In the city of Salatura there is a stupa built at the place where an arhat
converted a disciple of Panini. Five hundred years after the demise of the

Fascicle II

Tathagata a great arhat came from Kasmira to this place in the course of his
journey. When he saw a brahman teacher beating a schoolboy, he asked the
brahman, “Why are you chastising the child?" The brahman said, “I asked
him to learn the Sabdavidyà-sástra but he has not made progress with the
passage of time." The arhat smiled amiably and the old brahman said, *A
sramana should be compassionate and have sympathy for all living beings.
But you are now smiling and I would like to know why." The arhat said in
reply, “Tt is not easy for me to tell you, for fear that it might cause you deep
doubt. Have you ever heard about the rsi Panini, who composed the Sabda-
vidya-sastra for the instruction of posterity?” The brahman said, “He was а
scion of this city. Out of admiration for his virtue his disciples have made
an image of him, which is still in existence." The arhat said, “This son of
yours is [a reincarnation of] that rsi. On account of his rich knowledge he
took delight in studying worldly books, discussing only the heretical theories
and never researching the truth. He wasted his spirit and wisdom and is still
involved in the wheel of rebirth. By virtue of his surplus good deeds he has
been reborn as your beloved son. But he simply wasted his energy studying the
diction and language of worldly books How can this be the same as the Tatha-
gata's holy teachings, which give rise to bliss and wisdom in a mysterious way?

“In olden times there was a decayed tree by the shore of the South Sea,
and five hundred bats lived in the holes of the tree. Once a caravan of mer-
chants stayed under the tree. As the season was windy and chilly and the
merchants were hungry and cold, they piled up firewood and built a fire under
the tree. The smoke and flames gradually began to burn fiercely and set the
decayed tree on fire. One of the merchants recited the Abhidharma pitaka
after midnight, and the bats, even though scorched by the heat, so loved to
listen to the recitation of the Dharma that they would not leave the place;
they disregarded the intense heat and died in the tree. According to their
karmic force they were reborn as human beings and renounced their homes
to learn and practice [the Buddhist teachings]. As they had heard the recitation
of the Dharma they were clever and intelligent and realized sainthood; thus
they became fields of blessedness for the world.

"Recently King Kaniska and Venerable Par$va summoned five hundred
holy persons in Kasmira to compile the Vibhasa-sastra, and these five hundred
holy persons are the five hundred bats that lived in that decayed tree. Although

882a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

I am an unworthy person I was one of them. From this we may see that there
is such a great difference between the superior and the inferior, the virtuous
and the vicious, as that between those that fly high in the air and those that
crouch down on the ground. Permit your beloved son to become a monk, for
the merits of becoming a monk are indescribable in words."

After having spoken these words the arhat performed miracles and dis-
appeared all of a sudden. The brahman cherished a deep feeling of awe and
faith and exclaimed sadhu (“excellent”) for a long time. He related everything
to the people of the neighborhood and permitted his son to become a monk
to learn and practice [the Buddhist teachings]. He then gained faith and hon-
ored the Triple Gem, and his countrymen have accepted his edification with
more and more earnestness up to this day.

Going from Udakhand to the north over mountains and across rivers for more
than six hundred /;, I reached the country of Udyana. (This means “park,” as
it was a pleasure garden of a previous wheel king. Formerly it was transcribed
as Wuchang or Wutu, both erroneously. It is in the domain of North India.)
End of Fascicle II of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

Fascicle III

Eight Countries, from

Udyana to Rajapura
1. The Country of Udyana 5. The Country of Urasa
2. The Country of Balüra 6. The Country of Kasmira
3. The Country of Taksasila 7. The Country of Parnotsa
4. The Country of Simhapura 8. The Country of Rajapura

The country of Udyana is over five thousand /i in circuit, with mountains and
valleys connecting each other and rivers and marshes linking together. Although
crops are planted, the yield is poor owing to the infertility of the land. There
are many grapevines but sugarcane is scanty. The country produces gold and
iron and the soil is suitable for growing saffron. The woods are exuberant and
flowers and fruit are abundant. The climate is mild with timely wind and rain.
The people are timid and overcautious by nature and the practice of fraudulence
is the common custom. They enjoy learning but do not make profound studies,
and they take the recitation of spells as their profession. They mostly wear
white cotton and have few other garments. Although they speak a different
dialect, it is roughly the same as that spoken in India, and their written language
and etiquette are closely related to those of India.

They hold Buddhism in high esteem and reverently believe in the
Mahayana teachings. Along the two sides of the Subhavastu River there were
formerly one thousand four hundred monasteries, but most of them are now
in desolation. In the old days there were eighteen thousand monks but the
number has gradually decreased. They all study Mahayana teachings and
spend their time in silent meditation. They can recite their books well but
they do not make researches into the deep meanings. They are pure in observ-
ing the disciplinary rules and are specially adept in reciting incantations.
There are five traditions of the Vinaya rules, namely, the Dharmaguptaka,
the Mahisasaka, the Kasyapiya, the Sarvastivada, and the Mahasamghika.
There are more than ten deva temples with heretics living together. There
are four or five fortified cities, and the king mostly rules over the country

882b

882c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

from the city of Mangala, which is sixteen or seventeen /i in circuit and 15
well populated.

Four or five /i to the east of Mangala there is a stupa that has shown a
great number of spiritual signs. This was the spot where the Buddha, as the
rsi Patience in a previous life, had his limbs mutilated by King Kali (“Fight-
ing," formerly transcribed as Geli erroneously).

Going to the northeast for two hundred and fifty or sixty /i from Mangala,
I came to a great mountain and reached Apalala Dragon Spring, which is the
source of the Subhavastu River and has a tributary flowing to the southwest.
Morning and evening the white spray falls like snowflakes with all the colors
of the rainbow, shining upon all sides. At the time of Kasyapa Buddha the
dragon [of this spring] was born a human being named Jingqi, who was an
expert in the art of exorcism and had restrained a malicious dragon from
causing rainstorms. It was because of his help that the people of the country
had surplus grain to store at home. Out of gratitude for the exorcist's virtuous
deeds, each household of the inhabitants contributed one dou (ten liters) of
grain as a gift to him. As time passed some people neglected their duty, and
Jingqi became angry and wished to become a malignant dragon and cause
storms to spoil the seedlings of the crops. After his death he was reborn a
dragon at this place and caused white water to flow from the spring and it
damaged the fertility of the soil. When Sakya Tathagata came to guide the
world with a mind of great pity he had sympathy with the people of this
country, who alone suffered from the disaster, and he sent a deity to the place
to convert the ferocious dragon. The deity Vajrapani struck the mountain
cliffs with his vajra (thunderbolt) and the shock terrified the dragon king,
who came out and took refuge in the Buddha. After hearing the Buddha
preaching the Dharma for him, the dragon purified his mind and had faith
in enlightenment. The Tathagata then forbade him to destroy agricultural
products. The dragon said, “Whatever food I eat is collected from the fields
cultivated by people. Under your holy teachings I fear that I could not sustain
my life. I hope that I may be allowed to collect grain for storage once every
twelve years." The Tathagata accepted the dragon's request with compassion.
Thus the country suffers this white water calamity once every twelve years.

More than thirty /i to the southwest of Apalala Dragon Spring, on the
northern bank of the river, there is a huge rock with a footprint of the Tathagata,

Fascicle III

which varies in size according to the power of the merits of the measurer. It
was left by the Tathagata when he was going away after having converted
the dragon. Afterward people built a stone chamber in the rock and worshipers
came here from far and near to offer flowers and incense. Going downstream
for more than thirty /i, one reaches the rock on which the Tathagata washed
his robe. The lines ofthe robe are still clearly visible, as if they were carved
into the rock.

More than four hundred /i to the south of Mangala one reaches Hidda
Mountain, where the stream in the valley flows westward. As one goes up
to the east against the current of the stream, there are various kinds of flowers
and strange [types of] fruit, covering the gully and climbing the steeps. The
peaks and cliffs are precipitous and the brooks and ravines wind and meander.
The sound of loud talking and the echo of music are sometimes heard. Lying
linked together in the valley are square rocks that resemble bedsteads made
by craftsmen. This was the place where once in a former life the Tathagata
forsook his life to hear half a stanza of the Dharma. (The word "stanza" was
formerly transcribed as jie, an abbreviation of the original Sanskrit, or as
jieta, a mispronunciation of the Sanskrit word. The correct reading should
be gatha, meaning a “verse” consisting of thirty-two syllables.)

More than two hundred /i to the south of Mangala is Mahavana (“Great
Forest") Monastery, located beside a mountain. This was the place where
the Tathagata, when he was practicing the way of the bodhisattva in one of
his previous lives as a king named Sarvadatta (^All-giving"), came incognito
after having abandoned his kingdom to avoid an enemy. He met a poor brah-
man coming to beg for alms. Since the king had lost his kingdom he had
nothing to give as alms. So he asked the brahman to bind him, send him to
the enemy king, and claim a reward so that he might give the reward as alms
to the brahman.

Going down the mountain for thirty or forty /i from the northwest of Maha-
vana Monastery, one reaches Mayü (“Bean”) Monastery. There is a stupa
over one hundred feet high, beside which is a big square rock with a footprint
of the Tathagata. In one of his previous lives the Buddha stood on the rock
and emitted millions of rays of light to illumine Mahavana Monastery, while
he related the Jataka stories to human and divine beings. Below the base of
the stupa there is a stone, yellowish-white in color and which always exudes

883a

883b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

an oily substance. This was the place where the Tathagata, when practicing
the way of the bodhisattva, wrote down scriptures with a splinter of his bone
in order to hear the right Dharma.

Sixty or seventy /i to the west of Mayü Monastery is a stupa built by King
A$oka. This was the place where in order to acquire buddhahood when he
was practicing the way of the bodhisattva the Tathagata, in a former life as
a king named Sivaka (*Giving," formerly transcribed as Shipi erroneously),
cut his body to ransom a dove from a hawk.

More than two hundred /i to the northwest of the place where the dove
was ransomed, one enters the Saniraja Valley and reaches Sarpausadhi (“Ser-
pent Medicine") Monastery, where there is a stupa over eighty feet high.
This was the place where a famine and pestilence occurred when the Tathagata
was Indra in a former life. Medical treatment failed to cure the people, who
died one after another on the road. With a mind of compassion Indra wished
to save them, so he transformed himself into a huge python lying dead in the
valley, and an announcement echoed in the air. Those who heard it happily
rushed to the spot to cut off pieces of flesh, which were immediately regen-
erated, to satisfy their hunger and cure their disease. Not far away there is
the great Süma Stupa, marking the place where the Tathagata, as Indra in in
one of his former lives, pitied the people suffering during a year of famine.
He changed himself into a large suma (water) serpent and all those who ate
its flesh were cured.

Beside the cliff at the north of the Saniraja River there is a stupa that often
cures sick people who come to pray for the recovery of their health. When
in a former life the Tathagata was a peacock king, he came here with his
flock. As it was the hot season, the peacocks were thirsty but they could not
find any water to drink. The peacock king then pecked the cliff to let water
flow out of the rock. Now a pond has been formed there, and its water is
effective for healing ilIness. There are traces of the peacocks still visible on
the stone.

More than sixty or seventy /i southwest from Mangala there is a stupa
over sixty feet high built by King Uttarasena at the east side of a great river.
When the Tathagata was about to enter nirvana he told the assembly of monks,
“After my nirvana, King Uttarasena of Udyana should be given a portion of
my relic bones." The various other kings wished to share the relics equally

Fascicle III

among themselves and, as King Uttarasena arrived later, he was despised by
the other kings. At that time all the people, heavenly beings, and monks reit-
erated the Tathagata's last words. Thus King [Uttarasena] took part in sharing
the relics and carried his portion back to his own country, where he reverently
constructed a stupa.

On the bank beside the great river there is a huge rock in the shape of an
elephant. Formerly, when King Uttarasena used his great white elephant to
carry the relics home, it suddenly fell down and died at this place; it was
transformed into a rock and a stupa was erected beside it.

More than fifty /i to the west of Mangala and across a great river, one
reaches Rohitaka (“Red”) Stupa, which is over fifty feet in height and was
built by King Asoka. Formerly when the Tathagata was practicing the way
of the bodhisattva as a king named Maitribala, he drew blood from his body
to feed five yaksas (formerly transcribed as yecha erroneously).

More than thirty /i to the northwest of Mangala, one reaches Adbhuta
(“Marvelous Stone") Stupa, which is over forty feet in height. Formerly the
Tathagata preached the Dharma to instruct human and heavenly beings at
this place. When the Tathagata had left the place this stupa emerged from
the ground, to which the people offered incense and flowers reverently,
without cease.

Crossing the great river at the west of the stone stupa and going for thirty
or forty li, I reached a vihara in which is enshrined an image of Avalokitesvara
Bodhisattva (known as Guanzizai in Chinese. When it is pronounced in con-
nected syllables it reads as the above-mentioned Sanskrit form, and when it
is read separately it is divided into avalokita, translated as guan or observe,"
and isvara, translated as zizai or “master.” Formerly it was translated as Guang-
shiyin, Guanshiyin, or Guanshizizai, all erroneously). Its protective spiritual
influence is latent but its divine manifestations are apparent. Both monks and
laypeople come here one after another to make offerings to it without cease.

Going northwest for one hundred forty or fifty /i from the image of Avalo-
kite$vara Bodhisattva, I reached Lanpolu Mountain, on top of which is a
dragon lake more than thirty /i in circuit, a vast expanse of green water as
pure as a brilliant mirror. Formerly when King Virüdhaka went to attack the
Sakyas, four men of the Sakya clan resisted the [invading] army and their
relatives were exiled to different places. One of the four men came out of

883c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the capital city and, feeling tired during the march, he stopped midway. At
that time a wild goose came before him and, as the bird was docile and friendly
the man climbed onto its back. The goose flew up and alighted beside the
lake. The Sakya man, having traveled through the air and arrived in a distant
and strange land, lost his way and took a nap under the shade of a tree.

The young daughter of the dragon in the lake was enjoying the scenery
at the lakeside when she suddenly saw the Sakya refugee. Fearing that her
shape was unfit [to appear before a stranger], she changed herself into a
human being and stroked him. The Sakya man, startled, asked her, “I am a
poor traveler; why are you so intimate with me?” Then he tried to be affec-
tionate with the girl and attempted to have illicit intercourse with her. The
girl said, “If I had my parents’ permission I would be glad to comply with
your wishes. But even though you show me favor [I cannot accept it] without
my parents’ consent.” The Sakya said, “In this wilderness of mountains and
valleys, where is your home?” The girl said, “I am the daughter of the dragon
in this lake. I have heard that people of your noble clan have become destitute
and homeless in the course of fleeing from calamity. I am lucky to have this
opportunity to comfort you in your fatigue while on an excursion here. You
ask me to have intimacy with you but I have not received instructions from
my parents. Moreover, it is due to my evil deeds done in past lives that I have
been born in the form of a dragon. A human being and an animal are beings
of different ways and [their union] is unthinkable.” The Sakya man said,
“Once I get your consent my mind will be satisfied.” The dragon girl said,
“Then I shall accept your orders and will do whatever you wish me to do.”

The Sakya man then made an oath in his mind: “I shall render the whole
body of this dragon girl [permanently] transformed into that of a human being
by the power of whatever blessedness and virtue I have accumulated.” So the
dragon girl actually changed her form through the power of the man’s blessed-
ness. Having assumed the form of a human being, the girl was overjoyed and
thanked the Sakya, saying, “Due to my past evil deeds I was born in the cycle
of the evil ways of existence. I am lucky that your power of blessedness has
transformed my wicked body, in which I have been reborn for many kalpas
in the past, into a human figure in an instant. I am so grateful to you that even
if I were to smashed my body into pieces it would not be sufficient to express

Fascicle III

my thanks. I am willing to be intimate with you but I fear people's criticism.
I wish to tell my parents to arrange the rites in the proper way."

The dragon girl returned to the lake and said to her parents, “Today when
on an excursion I met a Sakya man, who by the power of his blessedness
transformed me into a human being. As we wish to get married I venture to
inform you of the fact." The dragon king was pleased with human beings
and had respect for the holySakya clan, so he consented to his daughter's
request and came out of the lake to express his thanks to the man, saying,
“You condescend to marry my daughter despite her station as a nonhuman
being. Please come to my home and let her serve you."

At the dragon king's invitation, the Sakya man came in and stayed in his
abode. He lived in the dragon palace together [with the dragon girl] after per-
forming due ceremonies and the two of them shared a happy conjugal life
with great pleasure. But the Sakya man always feared and loathed the sight
of dragons, so he wished to beg leave to depart. The dragon king stopped him,
saying, “Please do not go far away but stay near us as neighbors. I shall cause
you to possess territory and have the grand title of king; you will have ministers
and subjects under your control and rule over the country for a long time.”
The Sakya declined, saying, “What you have said is not my wish.”

The dragon king then put a sword into a small chest and covered it with
a piece of the best white cotton. He said to the Sakya man, “Take this white
cotton and present it to the king. He will certainly accept the gift with his
own hands from a man coming from afar. At that moment you can kill the
king, and wouldn’t it be good to seize the kingdom in such a way?”

Thus, at the instigation of the dragon, the Sakya went to offer the gift.
When the king of Udyana personally took up the white cotton, the Sakya got
hold of his sleeve and stabbed him. The king’s attendants and guards were
thrown into a hubbub of confusion at the flight of steps leading up to the audi-
ence hall. The Sakya wielding the sword said to them, “This sword in my
hand was given to me by a divine dragon to kill those who surrender after the
others or who refuse to serve me.” Fearing his divine martial power, they all
supported him in his ascent to the throne. Then he rectified the abuses of the
government and implemented new policies, eulogizing the sages and sympa-
thizing with those who were in trouble. He mobilized his retinue and rode in

884a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

a carriage to return to the dragon palace to report on his mission, as well as
to welcome the dragon girl to the capital.

As the influence of the dragon girl's evil deeds done in the past was not
yet completely wiped out, she often assumed her dragon form with nine
heads when in her private chamber. The Sakya man feared and abhorred the
sight and did not know what to do about it. He waited until the girl was asleep
and approached to cut off her heads with a sharp knife. The dragon girl,
startled from sleep, said, “This will not be advantageous to our offspring.
Not only would I be slightly injured but your descendants will suffer from
headache." Thus the clanspeople of this country often suffer from this ailment.
Although it is not continuously painful it recurs from time to time.

After the death of the Sakya man, his son succeeded to the throne as King
Uttarasena (“Superior Army"). After King Uttarasena had ascended the throne
his mother lost her sight. When the Tathagata had subdued the Apalala dragon
and was on his return journey, he descended from the air and alighted at the
palace at a time when King Uttarasena was out hunting. Then the Tathagata
briefly preached the Dharma to [Uttarasena’s] mother. Having met the Holy
One and heard the Dharma, she regained her sight. The Tathagata asked her,
“Your son is a clansman of mine. Where is he now?" The king's mother said,
*He went out in the morning on a hunting excursion. He will return soon."
When the Tathagata and his retinue of monks were about to resume their
journey the king's mother said, “1 am fortunate to have given birth to a son
of the holy clan, and you have had pity on us such that you condescended
to visit us in person. My son will return soon—please stay and wait for a
moment." The World-honored One said, “As this person is a clansman of
mine he may become enlightened on hearing of my teachings, so it is not
necessary for him to receive my personal instruction for the development of
his mind. I am going now. You may tell him when he returns that the Tathagata
has gone to Kusinagara to enter nirvana between the sala trees. He can obtain
some of my relic bones for his private worship." The Tathagata and his assem-
bly of monks rose into the air and went away.

While King Uttarasena was hunting, he saw from afar that his palace was
shining brightly, and he suspected that a fire might have occurred. He stopped
hunting and returned to find that his mother had regained her sight. He asked

Fascicle III

delightedly, *What auspicious event happened during my brief absence that
my kind mother's eyesight has been restored?" His mother said, “When you
were out the Tathagata came here. After hearing the Buddha's Dharma I
regained my sight. The Tathagata has gone from here to Kusinagara to enter
nirvana between the śđla trees. He suggested that you go promptly to obtain
a portion of his relic bones."

Upon hearing these words the king wailed piteously and fainted, and recov-
ered only after a long time. He got into his carriage and hurried to the sala
trees, but the Buddha had already entered nirvana. The other kings despised
him as a [minor] king from a vulgar borderland; they valued the relic bones
they did not wish to share them with him. At that time the assembly of gods
and people repeated the Buddha's last words. Only when the other kings heard
the Buddha's words did they share with him an equal portion of the relics.

Climbing over mountains and crossing valleys to the northwest from Man-
gala, and going upstream along the Indus River, the road is perilous and goes
through gloomy gullies, which are linked either by thick ropes or by iron
chains, with viaducts and bridges constructed at the precipices and wooden
pegs installed on the rocks as steps for climbers to set foot on. After a journey
of over one thousand /i, I reached the plain of Darada, the old capital of
Udyana, where gold and saffron are produced in abundance. Beside the great
monastery at Darada there is a wooden statue of Maitreya Bodhisattva more
than a hundred feet tall, of golden hue and latent spiritual power. It was made
by the arhat Madhyantika (formerly transcribed and abridged incorrectly as
Motiendi). Through his supernatural powers the arhat brought a craftsman
up to Tusita Heaven (formerly transcribed as Doushuaita or Doushuta erro-
neously) three times to observe the fine features of the bodhisattva, and then
[the artisan] completed the task. The Dharma has been transmitted to the
East since the time when this statue was made.

From here going to the east across mountains and valleys upstream of the
Indus River, over flying bridges and viaducts through perilous regions for
more than five hundred Ji, I reached the country of Balüra (in the domain of
North India).

The country of Balüra is more than four thousand /i in circuit. Situated
among the Great Snow Mountains, it is long from east to west and narrow

884b

884c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

from south to north. It yields much wheat and pulse and produces gold and
silver. Having the advantage of gold resources the country has ample means
for state expenditures. The climate 1s bitterly cold and the people are rude
by nature, lacking in kindness and righteousness and knowing nothing of
politeness. Their features are ugly and they wear coarse woolen garments.
Their writing is roughly the same as that of India but their spoken language
diverges from those of other countries. There are several hundred monasteries
with several thousand monks, who do not study the theories of any one
specific school, and they are mostly defective in observing the Vinaya rules.

From here I went back to Udakhand and crossed the Indus River to the
south. Flowing southwest, the river is three or four /i wide, with pure and
limpid rapidly moving water. Poisonous dragons and evil animals make their
dens in the river and often overturn the boats of those who are transporting
precious objects, seeds of rare flowers and fruit, or the Buddha's relic bones
across the river.

After crossing the river, I reached the country of Taksasila (in the domain of
North India). The country of Taksasila is more than two thousand /i in circuit
and its capital city is over ten /i in circuit. As the royal family is extinct, the
regional chieftains have competed with each other for sovereignty. Formerly
it belonged to the country of Kapisi but recently it became a dependency of
the country of Kasmira. The soil is fertile and the crops are rich, with many
springs and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is mild and the people are reck-
less and brave by custom and they venerate the Triple Gem. There are many
monasteries but most of them are in desolation. There are a few monks, all
of whom study Mahayana teachings.

More than seventy /i to the northwest of the capital city is the pond of the
dragon king Elapattra, which is about one hundred paces in circuit. The water
is lucid and has lotus flowers of different colors growing in it. This dragon
was a monk who injured an e/apattra tree in the time of Kasyapa Buddha.
Therefore, when the people of this land approached the dragon to pray for
rain or fine weather they had to invite a monk to go with them to the pond.
When the monk snapped his fingers to comfort the dragon the people's wishes
would surely be fulfilled.

Going southeast for more than thirty /i, I entered a spot between two
mountains where there is a stupa more than a hundred feet high built by King

Fascicle III

Ašoka. This was the place where Sakya Tathagata predicted that when
Maitreya appears in the world as a buddha four great treasures would naturally
come into existence. This auspicious spot is one of the four places. I heard
the local people say that during an earthquake all the mountains would shake
but for about a hundred paces around this treasure place the earth does not
quiver even a little. Some foolish people once vainly attempted to dig up the
treasure but the earth quaked and all the people toppled over onto the ground.
Beside this spot is a monastery in a very deserted condition, having had no
monks living in it for quite a long time.

Twelve or thirteen /i to the north of the city is a stupa built by King Asoka.
On fast days it sometimes emits a light amid [a shower of] divine flowers
and heavenly music. I heard the local people say that recently a woman suf-
fering from malignant leprosy secretly came to this stupa to make self-
reproach and repent [of evil deeds she had done in her past lives]. When she
saw that the compound was in a filthy condition she removed the dirt, swept
the place clean, smeared incense paste and scattered flowers on the ground,
and she plucked some blue lotus flowers to scatter on the road. By doing so
she was cured of her malignant disease and became beautiful in appearance,
and a sweet smell as fragrant as blue lotus issued from her body.

This was also the place where the Tathagata, while practicing the Dharma
in a former life as a great king named Candraprabha (“Moonlight”), cut off
his head for almsgiving in the course of acquiring enlightenment. He per-
formed such almsgiving a thousand times in past lives.

Beside this stupa where the head was forsaken, there is a desolate
monastery with a few monks. Formerly Kumaralata (known as Tongshou in
Chinese), a sastra master of the Sautrantika school, wrote treatises at this
monastery.

Outside the city to the southeast, on the northern side of South Hill, is a
stupa over a hundred feet high built by King Asoka at the place where his
son, Prince Kunala, had his eyes torn out due to the calumny of his stepmother.
Blind people prayed at this place and most of them recovered their eyesight.

Prince Kunala, who had been borne by the chief queen, was a handsome
man who was well known for his kindness. After the death of the chief queen,
his stepmother, a lascivious, immoral woman, tried to force the prince to
have illicit relations with her. The prince wept and blamed himself for his

885a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

refusal and withdrew with an apology. Having been rejected by the prince,
the stepmother was ashamed and became angry and having waited for the
chance to speak to the king, she said coolly, “Taksasila is in a strategic
position, and who else but a royal descendant can be depended on for its pro-
tection? Prince Kunala is well known for his kindness and filial piety. Because
you do not employ sagacious persons the people are critical of you." Deluded
by these words, the king was pleased with the intrigue and ordered the prince,
saying, “I succeeded to the throne handed down by our ancestors to rule over
the country and I fear losing it—our forerunners would be disappointed. As
Taksasila is a strategic place I now appoint you to garrison that country. State
affairs are important and human relationships are treacherous. You must not
move about at will so as to jeopardize the foundation of the state. Whenever
there is a [written] summons from me you should verify it by my teeth marks.
As my teeth are in my mouth, no one can make a forgery."

The prince thus went to the garrison post by the king's order, and even
though time passed his stepmother became increasingly angry with him.
She issued a false order in the king's name, sealed it with purple clay, and
had it marked with the king's teeth a when he was asleep. It was then dis-
patched to the prince to reprimand him. When his assistants knelt down to
read the order they looked at each other, not knowing what to do. The prince
asked them, “What is it that makes you look so miserable?" They said, “The
great king has issued an order to reprimand Your Highness, stating that your
eyes should be torn out and that you should be exiled to the valleys among
mountains and left there to live or die with your wife. However, the order
may be fraudulent and it would be better for you to go see the king face to
face and hear his personal verdict." The prince said, *How can I disobey my
father's order, even if he asked me to die? There is no mistake since the order
is sealed with his teeth marks."

The prince then asked a candala (outcaste) to tear out his eyes, and having
lost his eyesight he lived thereafter as a beggar, wandering from place to
place, until he came to the capital city where the king lived. His wife told
him, “This is the royal city and we are now suffering from hunger and cold.
Formerly you were a prince but now you are a beggar! I wish to report the
matter to the king and ask him to reconsider the reprimand." Then through
some subterfuge they slipped into the royal stable, where they wept in the

Fascicle III

cool breeze, late into the night, and sang piteously to the accompaniment of
a konghou (a sort of harp).

On a lofty pavilion the king heard the melodious singing of melancholy
and sorrowful words and, feeling it strange, he asked, “The voice of the
singing accompanied by a konghou sounds like that of my son. Why has he
come here?" He inquired of the stableman as to who was singing in the stable.
So the man brought the blind singer into the king's presence. Upon seeing
the prince, the king felt sorrowful and asked him, *Who disfigured you into
such a disastrous condition? If I did not even know that my beloved son had
lost his eyesight, how can I [claim to] see into the affairs of my people? Good
heavens! Oh, good heavens! How is it that my virtue has been corrupted to
such an extent?" The prince wept piteously and apologetically said in reply,
“Tt is because of my unfiliality that I incurred the blame of Heaven. On such-
and-such day I suddenly received your compassionate edict. I had no way
to speak to you, nor did I dare evade my responsibility [to implement your
edict].” Finding out that it had all been done illegally by his second wife, the
king inflicted capital punishment upon her without further investigation.

At that time there was at the monastery near the bodhi tree a great arhat
named Ghosa (“Wonderful Voice"), who possessed the four kinds of unhin-
dered eloquence and was complete with the three insights. The king told him
what his blind son had said and wished him to be so kind as to restore his
son's eyesight. At the king's request the arhat then made an announcement
on that day to the people of the country, saying, “On the day after tomorrow
I shall speak on the sublime doctrine. You may come listen to the Dharma
and each of you should bring a vessel with you to hold your tears." Thus
men and women coming from far and near flocked to the place. At that time
the arhat spoke on the twelvefold causation. None of those who heard the
Dharma did not shed tears, and they collected the tears in the vessels. When
the preaching was over the tears of everyone in the entire assembly were
collected in a golden basin. The arhat then made a pledge, saying, “All that
I have said is the Buddha's ultimate truth. If it is untrue and if I have spoken
wrongly, I shall have nothing more to say. Otherwise, I wish to wash the
blind man’s eyes to restore his eyesight to what it was before." Having said
this, he used the tears to wash the eyes of the prince, whose eyesight was
thus restored.

885b

885c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The king then reproached his ministers and denounced his assistants at
court, who were all dismissed, banished, relegated, or executed, and many
powerful and wealthy families were deported to the desert to the northeast
of the Snow Mountains.

From here going to the southeast across mountains and valleys for over seven
hundred /i, I reached the country of Simhapura (in the domain of North India).
The country of Simhapura is over three thousand five hundred or six hundred
li in circuit, bordering on the Indus River on the west. The capital city of the
country is fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit, and as it was built with a range of
hills at the back it is an impregnable stronghold. The farmers exert little effort
but gain much profit from the land. The climate is cold and the people are
rude by nature. They are valiant but deceitful by custom. There is no king
ruling over the country; it is a dependency of the country of Kasmira.

Not far to the south of the city is a stupa built by King Asoka. Although
some of its decorations are missing, it continues to be effective in showing
spiritual manifestations. Beside it there 1s a monastery devoid of monks.

Forty or fifty /i to the southeast of the city there is a stone stupa more than
two hundred feet high built by King Asoka. There are about ten ponds around
the stupa. The banks of the ponds are built with rocks carved in various
strange shapes and clear water rushes into the ponds, giving off spray. Dragons,
fish, and other aquatic creatures move about in the grottoes under the water.
Lotus flowers of the four colors cover the surfaces of the clear ponds and all
kinds of fruit trees blossom luxuriantly in different hues. With the woods
reflected in the ponds, this place is truly a pleasure garden. There is a
monastery nearby but it has been deserted for a long time.

Not far from the stupa is where the founder of the white-clothed [Jains]
realized the principles he was seeking and first preached his doctrine. Now
there is a memorial of the event and beside it is a deva temple. His disciples
practice austerities, persevering day and night without leisure to take rest.
The doctrine preached by the founder was mostly taken from the tenets of
the Buddhist scriptures and he taught them according to the different incli-
nations of people and laid down disciplinary rules. The senior disciples are
called bhiksus and the junior ones sramaneras. Their manner of living and
code of deportment are quite similar to those of the Buddhist monks, except

Fascicle III

that they keep a tuft of hair on the head and [some] go naked. If they put on
any clothing the special color is white, which differentiates them from other
sects. The statues of the founder are made, without authority, in the same
posture as images of the Tathagata. The only difference is the costume; the
good features are exactly the same.

From here I returned to the northern part of the country of Taksasila, where
I crossed the Indus River and, after going southeast for more than two hundred
li, 1 came across a great rocky pass. Formerly Prince Mahasattva sacrificed
his body at this place to feed a starving tigress. About one hundred and forty
or fifty paces to the south 1s a stone stupa, built at the spot where the
Mahasattva had pity on the [starving] tigress. When he came here he pricked
himself with a dry bamboo splinter so as to give the tigress his blood. The
animal [regained enough strength and subsequently] devoured him. The soil
and plants of this place are dark reddish in color, as if stained by blood. When
people come to this spot they feel nervous and uneasy, as if they had prickles
hurting their backs, and whether or not they believe [the story of the hungry
tigress] they are moved to pity.

To the north of this stupa of the sacrifice of the body there is a stone stupa
more than two hundred feet high built by King Asoka. It is decorated with
marvelous engravings and sometimes emits a divine light. Smaller stupas
and stone niches, counted by the hundreds, surround the sepulchral ground.
Those who are suffering from illness circumambulate this place and most of
them are cured.

To the east of the stone stupa there is a monastery with more than a hundred
monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. From here going east for
more than fifty /i, I reached an isolated hill where there is a monastery with
over two hundred monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. There are
luxuriant flowers and fruit trees with ponds of spring water as lucid as a
mirror. Beside it is a stupa over two hundred feet high, built at the spot where
the Tathagata in a former life converted an evil yaksa and taught him not to
eat meat.

From here going southeast for more than five hundred /; I reached the country
of Urasa (in the domain of North India). The country of Urasa is more than
two thousand /i in circuit, with mountains and hills connected together, rendering

886a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the cultivated fields narrow and small. The capital city of the country is seven
or eight /i in circuit; it is without a sovereign king and the country is a depend-
ency of the country of Kasmira. The soil is suitable for growing cereals but
the country has few flowers and little fruit. The climate is mild and there is
not much frost or snow. The people are rough and deceitful and lack the cus-
tom of observing the proprieties, and they do not believe in Buddhism. About
four or five /i to the southwest of the capital city there is a stupa more than
two hundred feet high built by King Asoka. Beside it is a monastery with
few monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings.

From here going southeast for more than one thousand /i over mountains,
along dangerous paths and across iron bridges, I reached the country of
Kasmira (formerly transcribed erroneously as Jibin, in the domain of North
India). The country of Kasmira is more than seven thousand /i in circuit, with
precipitous mountains surrounding it on all sides. Although there are passes
the passages are very narrow. Since ancient times no hostile neighboring
countries have been able to invade this country. The capital city, with a great
river on its west, is twelve or thirteen /i from south to north and four or five
li from east to west. The soil is suitable for growing cereals and there are
plenty of flowers and fruit. It produces horses of the dragon breed and also
yields saffron, fire-pearls, and medicinal herbs.

The climate is bitterly cold and there is much snow but little wind. The
people wear woolen or cotton clothes. They are frivolous by custom and
mostly timid. As the country is protected by a dragon the people hold sway
over the neighboring regions. Their features are handsome but they are of
deceitful dispositions. They are fond of learning and have a wide scope of
knowledge, believing in both heretical teachings and the right teachings.
There are over one hundred monasteries with more than five thousand monks.
There are four stupas, all built by King Asoka, each containing about one
sheng of the Tathagata’s relic bones.

In the National Record it is said that this country was originally a dragon
lake. Formerly, when the Buddha, the World-honored One, had subdued an
evil god in the country of Udyana and was flying over this country on his
way back to Central India, he said to Ananda, “After my nirvana the arhat
Madhyantika will establish a country at this place, settle people, and propagate

Fascicle III

the buddha-dharma." In the fiftieth year after the Tathagata's nirvana, Ananda’s
disciple, the arhat Madhyantika, who possessed the six supernatural powers
and had attained the eight emancipations, heard about the Buddha's prediction
with a feeling of joy. He came here and sat down in the woods on a great
mountain, showing great supernatural powers. Upon seeing him, the dragon
had deep faith in him and asked him what he wanted. The arhat said, “I want
you to give me enough space to keep [just] my knees in the lake." Thereupon
the dragon king withdrew some water from the lake to offer [a bit of dry
land] to the monk. Through his miraculous powers the arhat enlarged his
body [to take more land] as the dragon did his utmost to draw away the water
from the lake until it was completely exhausted, so that the dragon had to
ask for some place for himself. The arhat reserved a lake more than a hundred
li in circuit in the northwest for the dragon, while the dragon's relatives
dwelled separately in a small lake.

The dragon king said, *Now that I have presented all the land of the lake
to you, please always accept my offerings." Madhyantika said, “As I shall
enter parinirvana (complete nirvana) very soon, how will I be able to always
accept your offerings, though I would like to?" The dragon then requested
that five hundred arhats should always accept his offerings until the extinction
of the Dharma, and that after the extinction of the Dharma he should then
retake this country as his dwelling lake. Madhyantika assented to this request.

After having obtained the land the arhat established five hundred monas-
teries with his great supernatural powers and bought slaves from different
countries to serve the monks. After Madhyantika entered extinction the slaves
made themselves rulers. The neighboring countries despise them as low-
born people and do not interact with them, calling them the Krita (“The
Bought"). Now spring water is overflowing at many places.

King A$oka of Magadha ascended the throne in the hundredth year after
the Tathagata's nirvana and exerted his influence in distant lands. He deeply
believed in the Triple Gem and fostered all creatures of the four forms of
birth. There were then five hundred arhat monks and five hundred ordinary
monks, whom the king respected and treated with equal hospitality. There
was a monk named Mahadeva (“Great Deity”), a person of extensive learning
and great wisdom, who had made profound studies of the categories of name
and reality. He wrote an elaborate treatise in exposition of theories contrary

886b

886c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

to the holy teachings [of the Buddha], and all his friends and acquaintances
followed his heterodox views. Being unable to discern the arhats from the
ordinary monks, King A$oka had sympathy with those whom he liked and
supported those who were on intimate terms with him. He summoned the
monks to the Ganges River, intending to drown them in the deep water and
kill them all. The arhats, realizing that their lives were at stake, employed
their supernatural powers and flew through the air to this country [of Kasmira],
where they lived in the mountains and valleys. Upon hearing this, King Ašoka
was afraid and repented; he came in person to apologize and invited the
arhats to return to his country but the arhats flatly refused the invitation. Thus
King A$oka built five hundred monasteries for the arhats and offered the
whole country as alms to the community of monks.

King Kaniska of the country of Gandhara ascended the throne in the four-
hundredth year after the Tathagata's nirvana; his influence reached far and
distant lands, which then became affiliated with him. In his leisure hours he
always studied Buddhist scriptures and each day he invited a monk to preach
the Dharma in his palace. As the monks belonged to different schools their
views were at variance with each other, and the king was greatly puzzled
and could not get rid of his delusions. At that time Venerable Par$va explained,
“In the long period of time since the Tathagata passed away, his disciples
have adhered to different schools and the masters have held various views,
each grasping his own opinions and giving rise to contradictions." The king
was quite moved to hear this and, after brooding in a sorrowful mood for a
long time, he said to the venerable monk, “By the remnant blessedness of
my ancestors I am lucky enough to have succeeded to the exploits of my
predecessors. Although I am far away from the time of the Buddha I am still
fortunate. I venture to forget my vulgarity and incompetence and wish to
propagate the Dharma by expounding the whole Tripitaka according to the
tenets of different schools." Venerable Par$va said, “Your Majesty has planted
the root of good deeds in the past and has accumulated much blessing. It is
my wish that Your Majesty should pay attention to the buddha-dharma.”

Then the king issued an order to summon holy and learned monks through-
out the country, from far and near. Thus brilliant scholars and wise monks
flocked to the assembly from great distances in the four quarters, to be enter-
tained with the four monastic requisites for seven days. Since [the assembly]

Fascicle III

was for the discussion of the great Dharma, havibg too many participants
would be too chaotic. Thus the king respectfully said to the monks, “Those
who have attained sainthood may stay, while those who are still under the
bondage of rebirth may ." The remaining number was still too many, so the
king declared again, *Those who have completed their learning may stay,
while those who are still in the course of learning may go back." The remain-
ing number was still too many, and so he ordered again, “Those who possess
the three insights and have the six supernatural powers may stay, while the
rest may go back." But as the remaining number was still too many, he again
issued an order, saying, “Only those who are well versed in the Tripitaka
with its supramundane theories and who thoroughly understand the five mun-
dane branches of knowledge may remain, while the others may go back."
Thereupon four hundred ninety-nine persons were selected.

The king wished [to hold the convention] in his own country but the
climate was too hot and humid for the purpose. He also wished to go to the
cave at Rajagrha, where Mahakasyapa had convened his assembly. Venerable
Parsva and others discussed the matter and said, “No! [At Rajagrha] there
are many heretics who engage in debate, holding divergent heterodox views.
We would get involved with them in disputations and then how could we
have the time to write our treatises?" Thus the monks in the meeting all
favored the country [of Kasmira for the assembly].

Because the country was surrounded by mountains on the four sides and
was strongly guarded by yaksas, and had fertile soil and rich products, it was
a place where sages and saints met and took up their lodgings and was fre-
quented by spirits and genies. The monks discussed the place and they all
agreed that it was an appropriate location [for the meeting]. The king and
the arhats then came from their country [of Gandhara] to the country [of
Kasmira] and constructed a monastery to collect and compile the Tripitaka
with the intention of composing a Vibhasa-sastra.

At that time Venerable Vasumitra, dressed in a monk’s patched robe, was
outside the door, when the arhats said to him, “You have not gotten rid of
the bondage of the passions and your arguments are absurd and erroneous.
You should go far away and not stay here." Vasumitra said, “You sagacious
monks have no doubts about the Dharma and you are spreading the Buddha’s
teachings in his place. You are collecting the great doctrines with the intention

887a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of writing a standard treatise. Although I am unintelligent, I do know some-
thing of the subtle teachings. I have made profound studies of the abstruse
texts of the Tripitaka and the sublime principles of the five branches of knowl-
edge and I have mastered their essences." The arhats said, “You must not
speak in this manner. You should live in seclusion and attain arhatship quickly.
Then it will not be too late for you to come and join us at the meeting."
Vasumitra said, *I deem the attainment of arhatship to be as insignificant as
spittle. My ambition is to gain buddhahood;d I do not wish to go by the small
path. But I can still attain the holy fruit of arhatship before a ball of thread
falls down to the ground after I have thrown it up into the air."

The arhats again reproached him, saying, “You are truly an arrogant man.
Arhatship is what all the buddhas have praised and you should quickly realize
it, so as to remove the monks’ doubts." Vasumitra then tossed a ball of thread
up into the air but the devas took hold of it and made an appeal to him, saying,
* You should now attain buddhahood and become the successor to Maitreya
in the future, to be specially honored by all the three realms and be someone
on which all beings of the four forms of birth can depend. Why should you
wish to realize the small fruit here and now?" Upon witnessing this event
the arhats apologized [to Vasumitra] and elected him to be the elder of the
meeting, and all dubious points were settled by him.

First the five hundred saintly and holy monks composed the Upadesa-
sastra (formerly transcribed wrongly as Youpotishe lun) in a hundred thousand
stanzas for the exposition of the Sutra pitaka (formerly transcribed wrongly
as Xiuduoluozang). Then they wrote the Vinaya-vibhasa-sastra in one hundred
thousand stanzas for the exposition of the Vinaya pitaka (formerly transcribed
wrongly as Pinayezang). Last, they compiled the Abhidharma-vibhasa-sastra
in one hundred thousand stanzas for the exposition of the Abhidharma pitaka
(known as Apitanzang in abbreviation). There are altogether three hundred
thousand stanzas with nine million six hundred thousand words for the full
explanation of the Tripitaka, to be studied for all ages to come. They probe
into all branches and ramifications, whether shallow or deep. The general
meanings are repeatedly clarified and the subtle sayings made apparent. They
are widely circulated for the guidance of posterity.

King Kaniska had these treatises incised on red copper plates and kept
them in stone cases, and a stupa was constructed for their preservation. He

Fascicle III

ordered the yaksa deities to be on guard all around the country to prevent
heretics from taking the treatises out of the country. Those who wished to
study them might do so inside the country. After having completed the task
the king returned to his own capital with his army. When he came out of the
western gate of the capital city of the country [of Kasmira], he knelt down
facing the east to offer the whole country as alms to the monks. But after the
Kaniska's death the Krita tribe resumed kingship, expelled the monks, and
demolished the buddha-dharma.

The king of Himatala (“Below the Snow Mountains") in the country of
Tukhara, a descendant of the Sakya clan, fully occupied his territory and
ascended the throne in the six-hundredth year after the Tathagata's nirvana.
He planted his mind in the earth of the Buddha and poured his sentiments
into the sea of the Dharma. When he heard that the Krita tribesmen were
destroying the buddha-dharma, he mustered three thousand brave warriors
of his country and outfitted them in the guise of merchants. Carrying with
them a large quantity of valuable goods, they hid weapons secretly among
the merchandise and came to this country. The lord of [Kasmira] treated them
with special courtesy. From among the [disguised] merchants, five hundred
brave men who possessed tactical skill were selected. Each was equipped
with a sharp dagger hidden in his sleeves and they carried rare valuables to
present to the lord in person. At that moment the king of Himatala took off
the hat of the lord and occupied his throne. The king of the Krita tribe was
taken aback by the surprise attack and was beheaded right away. [The king
of Himatala] declared to the people, “I am the king of Himatala in the country
of Tukhara. I was enraged by this low-born tribesman, who openly carried
out cruel policies. I have put him to death because he was guilty. You innocent
people are guiltless." The chief ministers of the court were banished to a for-
eign land. Once order was restored in the country the monks were invited
back and monasteries were built, as peacefully as before. The king knelt
down outside the western gate of the capital city with his face turned to the
east to again offer the country as alms to the monks.

Because the Krita tribesmen had lost power on account of Buddhist monks
on several occasions, they bore them a grudge for generations and hated the
buddha-dharma. After a long period of time they resumed the kingship once

887b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

again. Therefore Buddhism is not much believed in by the people of the
country, while deva temples enjoy much attention.

More than ten /i to the southeast of the new city, at the south side of a
great mountain to the north of the old city, is a monastery with over three
hundred monks. In the stupa of the monastery there is a Buddha's tooth relic,
about one and a half inches long, yellowish-white in color. On fast days it
sometimes emits a light.

Formerly when the Krita tribespeople persecuted the buddha-dharma, the
monks scattered to various places and lived separately. One of the sramanas
went to India to visit and worship the sacred sites with utmost sincerity. Later,
when he heard that order had been restored in his country, he started on his
return journey and on the way he met a herd of elephants running amok in
the marsh, trumpeting and rampaging wildly. At the sight of the elephants,
the sramana climbed up into a tree to avoid them. At that moment the ele-
phants rushed to a pond to get water to soak the roots of the tree, then they
pushed the tree until it fell down.

Having got hold of the sramana, the elephants carried him into a big
forest, where a sick elephant was lying on the ground with a painful sore.
They put the monk's hand on the painful spot and he found that the wound
had been made by a bamboo prickle. After plucking out the bamboo prickle
and applying medicine to the wound, the sramana tore off a piece of his robe
to dress the sick elephant's wounded foot. One of the elephants took a golden
casket to the sick elephant and the sick elephant handed it over to the sramana.
Upon opening the casket, the sramana saw a Buddha's tooth relic in it. The
monk was surrounded by the elephants and could not get away from them.
At mealtime on the following day they brought him strange [kinds of] fruit
for his midday meal. After the meal was over, they carried the monk out of
the forest and, having carried him for several hundred /i, they let him get
down and knelt on the ground to worship him before they dispersed.

When the sramana reached the western boundary of the country he boarded
a ferryboat to cross a rapid river but in midstream the boat was almost over-
turned. The other passengers in the boat said among themselves, “This sra-
mana must be the cause of our trouble—almost getting drowned in the river.
He must have carried with him some relic bones of the Tathagata, which are
greatly valued by dragons." The boatman searched the passengers and in fact

Fascicle III

discovered the Buddha's tooth relic. The sramana then held the tooth relic
high and lowered his head to say to the dragon [in the river], “I now hand
this over to you for safekeeping but I shall come soon to take it back." He
did not cross the river but disembarked and, gazing at the river, he said regret-
fully, “Аз I did not learn the craft of subduing dragons I am now bullied by
this beast of a dragon!" So he went back to India to learn the magical craft
of suppressing dragons. After three years he started again on his return journey,
and when he reached the bank of the river and was preparing an altar [for
performing the rites], the dragon handed over the casket containing the
Buddha's tooth relic to the sramana, who took it back and enshrined it at
this monastery.

Fourteen or fifteen /i to the south of the monastery [of the tooth relic]
there is a small monastery in which is enshrined a standing statue of Avalo-
kite$vara Bodhisattva. If a worshiper decides to starve himself to death, in
case he cannot fulfill his wish to see the bodhisattva in person, the bodhisattva
appears in his marvelous corporeal body out of the statue.

Over thirty /i to the southeast of the small monastery I arrived at a great
mountain on which there was an old monastery built on a magnificent scale,
but it is now mostly in ruins. There is only one small storied pavilion at a
corner of the monastery, with more than thirty monks, who study Mahayana
teachings. Formerly the sastra master Samghabhadra (known as Zhongxian
in Chinese) composed the Abhidharma-nyayanusara-sastra here. On the left
and right sides of the monastery there are stupas containing relic bones of
great arhats. Monkeys and other wild animals pluck flowers as offerings at
all times of the year without interruption, as if they were performing a duty
under instruction. There are many strange traces on this mountain, such as
rocky walls that are split crosswise, or the hoofprints of horses left on the
tops of the peaks. All these traces have strange shapes. They were drawn by
arhats who were sramaneras (not yet fully ordained monks) with their fingers
while they were riding to and fro on pleasure trips. Such traces are so numer-
ous that it is difficult to give a full account of them.

Over ten /i to the east of the Buddha tooth monastery, on the steep side
of a northern mountain, there is a small monastery where the great sastra
master Skandhila composed the Abhidharma-prakarana-pada-sástra in for-
mer times.

887c

888a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

In the small monastery there is a stone stupa more than fifty feet high, con-
taining the relic bones of an arhat. Formerly there was an arhat, a big and tall
man who had the appetite of an elephant. The people ofthe time sneered at him,
saying, “You know only how to satisfy yourself and have no sense of right and
wrong!" When the arhat was about to enter nirvana he told the people, “I shall
soon take up complete extinction. I wish to tell you the wonderful Dharma I
have personally realized." On hearing this the people all jeered at him even
more and they all gathered to see what would happen. The arhat then said to
them, *Now I shall tell you my personal karmic conditions. Before my present
existence I was born an elephant, and I lived in the royal stable of a king of East
India. There was then in the country [of Kasmira] a sramana who was making
a long journey in India in search of sacred scriptures and commentaries. The
king presented me as a gift to the sramana to carry the Buddhist scriptures for
him to this country. Soon afterward I died and by the merit of having carried
scriptures I was reborn a human being. With the surplus blessedness I was able
to become a monk at an early age. I worked hard to find liberation from the
cycle of rebirth, without spending a single moment in idleness, until I attained
the six supernatural powers and cut off the passions of the three realms. But my
old habit of eating [like an elephant] was still as before, though I restricted
myself to eating only one-third of my regular amount of food."

When he said this the people did not believe him, so he rose into the air
and entered the samadhi (concentrated trance) of firelight. Flames and smoke
came from his body and he entered extinction while his remains dropped
down, over which a stupa was built.

Going northwest from the royal city for over two hundred Ji, I reached
Vikritavana Monastery, where the sastra master Pürna (known as Yuanman
in Chinese) composed the Exposition of the Abhidharma-sastra.

Going west from the city for one hundred forty or fifty /i, I reached the
north of a great river at the south side of a mountain and came to a monastery
of the Mahasamghika school with more than a hundred monks. This was the
place where the sastra master Bodhila composed the Tattvasamcaya-sastra
of the Mahasamghika school.

Going southwest from here for more than seven hundred /i over mountains
and across dangerous rivers, I reached the country of Parnotsa (in the domain

Fascicle III

of North India). The country of Parnotsa is more than two thousand /i in
circuit and has many mountains and rivers; it has narrow strips of cultivated
land. The crops are sown in season and flowers and fruit are luxuriant. There
is plenty of sugarcane but no grapes. Trees bearing such fruit as amra (mango),
udumbara (fig), moca (plantain), and so on have been planted by householders
in the woods near their dwelling places, because the people enjoy the taste
of these [variteies of] fruit. The climate is humid and hot and the people are
bold and fiery by custom. Their garments are mostly made of cotton cloth.
They are simple and straightforward by nature and believe in the Triple Gem.
There are five monasteries, mostly in ruins. The country has no ruler and is
a dependency of Kasmira. In the monastery to the north of the city there are
a few monks. To the north of the monastery there is a stone stupa that often
shows miracles.

From here going southeast for more than four hundred /i, I reached the country
of Rajapura (in the domain of North India). The country of Rajapura is over
four thousand /i in circuit; the capital city, which is more than ten /i in circuit
and has many hills and mounds around it, is a strong fortress. The valleys
and plains are narrow and the soil is not productive. The native products and
climate are the same as those of Parnotsa. The people are bold and fiery by
custom and are brave and valiant by nature. The country has no ruler and is
a dependency of Kasmira. There аге ten monasteries with few monks. There
is one deva temple with many heretics.

From the country of Lampa up to this land all the inhabitants are coarse
and vulgar in appearance and rustic and violent by nature. They speak unre-
fined dialects, have little courtesy, and lack the sense of righteousness. Their
lands do not belong to India proper but are uncivilized frontier regions.

From here proceeding southeast, descending from a mountain, crossing a
river, and going for more than seven hundred /i, I reached the country of
Takka (in the domain of North India).

End of Fascicle III of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

Fascicle IV

Fifteen Countries, from

Takka to Kapitha
1. The Country of Takka 9. The Country of $rughna
2. The Country of Cinabhukti 10. The Country of Matipura
3. The Country of Jalamdhara 11. The Country of Brahmapura
4. The Country of Kulüta 12. The Country of Govisana
5. The Country of Satadru 13. The Country of Ahicchattra
6. The Country of Pariyatra 14. The Country of Vilasana
7. The Country of Mathura 15. The Country of Kapitha
8. The Country of Sthanesvara

The country of Takka is more than ten thousand /i in circuit, with the Vipasa
River at its east and the Indus River at its west; the capital city is over twenty
li in circuit. The soil is good for growing nonglutinous rice and there is plenty
of winter wheat. The country produces gold, silver, brass, copper, and iron.
The climate 15 hot and there is much violent wind. The people are rude and
ill-tempered and their language is base and vulgar. They dress in white gar-
ments known as kauseya (“wild silk") clothes and “morning glow” (fine cot-
ton) costume. Few of them believe in the buddha-dharma and most of them
serve the deities. There are ten monasteries and several hundred deva temples.
In this country there were formerly many almshouses to render help to the
poor and needy or give them free food and medicine, and to provide travelers
with meals so that they might dispel their fatigue.

Going fourteen or fifteen /i to the southwest from the capital city, I reached
the old city of Sakala. The city wall is dilapidated but the foundations are
still tough and strong. It is over twenty /i in circuit, inside which there is a
smaller city, six or seven /i in circuit, with rich and prosperous inhabitants.
This was the original capital city of the country.

Several hundred years ago there was a king named Mahirakula (known
as Dazu, “Great Clan," in Chinese), who reigned in this city over all parts

888b

888c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of India. He was a man of talent and intelligence with a bold and furious
nature. All the neighboring countries were his vassal states. Wishing to learn
about the buddha-dharma in his leisure time, he ordered the monks to rec-
ommend a learned monk of virtue [to be his teacher]. But none of the monks
dared accept the offer, as they had few desires in their quiet lives and did not
seek fame or eminence, while those who were erudite and prominent feared
his majesty.

At that time there was a man who had been a servant of the royal household
but he had also been a monk for a long time. A man of refined speech and
skillful in discussion, he was chosen by the monks to accept the king's appoint-
ment. King Mahirakula said, “Out of respect for the buddha-dharma I tried
to seek a monk of renown, and you now recommend a slave to hold discus-
sions with me! I thought that there were many brilliant scholars in the com-
munity of monks but now I have come to know the actual condition. What
is there for me to respect?" Then he issued an order to all the five parts of
India to destroy whatever was connected with Buddhism and to expel all
monks and not allow a single one to remain behind.

Now in the country of Magadha, King Baladitya (known as Youri, *Morn-
ing Sun," in Chinese) respected the buddha-dharma and loved his subjects,
Because King Mahirakula employed cruel punishment and practiced tyranny,
King Baladitya defended his territory and refused to pay tribute to Mahirakula
as his subordinate. King Mahirakula mobilized his troops to punish Baladitya,
but Baladitya got news of the invasion and said to his ministers, “I have
heard that the invaders are coming but I do not have the heart to injure the
soldiers. May you officials and commoners spare me of guilt and allow my
humble self to hide in the grassy marshland." Having said so, he left the
palace and went to the mountainous wilderness and several myriads of his
admirers and followers accompanied him to take refuge on an island.

King Mahirakula then handed over his troops to his younger brother and
sailed across the sea to attack the island. King Baladitya guarded the strategic
points and sent his light cavalrymen to lure the enemy to war. Amid the clamor
of gongs and drums, Baladitya's soldiers, lying in ambush, suddenly appeared
in all quarters and captured Mahirakula alive, who was then granted the favor
of an audience. Ashamed of his misbehavior, King Mahirakula covered his
face with his robes. King Baladitya, seated on his lion seat and surrounded

Fascicle IV

by his officials, ordered his attendants to tell Mahirakula, *Uncover your
face; I wish to speak to you." Mahirakula said in reply, “The vassal and the
lord have changed positions. We now face each other in grudges and enmity,
and since we are not on friendly terms what is the use of having a face-to-
face talk?" Despite repeated exhortation to [uncover his face] he would not
do so. Then it was ordered to enumerate Mahirakula's faults. “The Triple
Gem is the field of blessedness, it is that on which all creatures of the four
forms of birth can depend. If I had allowed you to act like a jackal or wolf
you would have completely destroyed the causes of superior [good] deeds.
Good luck is not on your side and so you have been captured by me. Your
crimes are unpardonable and you must be sentenced to death."

When the mother of King Baladitya, who was a woman of erudition and
good memory and an expert physiognomist, heard that Mahirakula was to
be executed, she promptly told King Baladitya, “I have heard that Mahirakula
is a person with marvelous features and great wisdom. I wish to have a look
at him." King Baladitya then had Mahirakula led to his mother's palace. The
queen mother said, “Alas, Mahirakula! You need not feel ashamed. The world
is impermanent and honor and disgrace replace each other alternately. I am
just as your mother and you, my son. You should remove the covering on
your face so that we may talk face to face." Mahirakula said, “I was the lord
of a country hostile to you but I am now a captive at your court. I have demol-
ished the achievements of my forerunners and brought my ancestral line to
an end. Not only I am ashamed to face my forefathers but also I feel remorseful
to my subjects. I am ashamed to see heaven and earth so I regretfully cover
my face with my clothes." The king's mother said, “The rise and fall of a
nation depends on circumstances and existence or extinction is predestined
by fate. If your mind looks at things with a view of equality, then both gain
and loss are forgotten. If your mind is controlled by things, there will then
arise feelings of calumny and commendation. You should believe in karmic
retribution and change with the change of time. If you remove your covering
and speak to me face to face, you may perhaps be able to keep your life."

Mahirakula said gratefully, “I am a man of no talent and attained the throne
by mere chance. Through my malpractice in political administration my royal
lineage was brought to an end. Although I am under arrest I still cling to my
life even for a short while. For your great courtesy I thank you face to face

889a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

with profuse gratitude." Then he removed his robes from his face. The king's
mother said to him, *Take good care of yourself and you will live to the
natural end of your life."

Then she told King Baladitya, “It is laid down in the code of our ancestors
that we should forgive other people's faults and be kind to living beings.
Although King Mahirakula has done evil for a long time his personal blessed-
ness has not yet been exhausted. If you kill this man we will suffer famine
for twelve years. He has prognostic signs of reinstatement but he will not be
the king of a great country; he will occupy and possess a small country in
the north." Under the admonition of his compassionate mother, King Baladitya
took pity on the lord who had lost his kingdom; he married his young daughter
to him and treated him with special hospitality. Mahirakula's defeated soldiers
were enrolled to reinforce his guards before [the former king] was sent out
of the island.

In the meantime King Mahirakula's younger brother had returned to his
own country and established himself as king, so Mahirakula had lost the
throne and had to flee and hide himself in the mountainous wilderness. He
then went north to seek refuge in the country of Kasmira, and the king of
Kasmira accorded him deep courtesy and conferred feudal estates upon him.

After some years had passed [Mahirakula], commanding the people of
his fiefdom, killed the king of Ka$mira on some pretext and proclaimed him-
self king. With the prestige of his success in the war he then attacked the
country of Gandhara in the west and he had his troops lie in ambush and
killed the king. The members of the royal clan and all the ministers were
slaughtered and one thousand six hundred stupas and monasteries were
demolished. Apart from those killed in the war, there were nine kotis of people
who remained alive, and he intended to kill them all and not allow a single
one to survive. At that time his assistants at court admonished him, saying,
“Your Majesty’s prestige awed the strong enemies so much that their chiefs
were executed even before the soldiers exchanged blows. What guilt have
the common people committed? We wish to substitute our humble lives for
their deaths.” The king said, “You believe in the buddha-dharma and think
highly of future blessedness. Because you desire to achieve buddhahood you
widely propagate the Jataka stories. Do you intend to hand down my evil
repute to posterity? Go back to your seats and say no more!”

100

Fascicle IV

Three kotis of people of the upper class were taken to the bank of the
Indus River and put to death, three kotis of people of the middle class were
drowned in the river, and three kotis of people of the lower class were granted
to the soldiers [as slaves]. After that, Mahirakula carried the loot he had taken
from the conquered country and marched home in triumph. But in less than
a year's time he died a sudden death, and at that time clouds and mist darkened
the sky and the earth quaked, with a violent wind blowing vehemently. A
person who had realized sainthood had pity on him and remarked with a sigh
of regret, “You unjustly killed innocent people and destroyed the buddha-
dharma. You will fall into the deepest hell of incessant suffering and rotate
[in the wheel of rebirth] without end."

In the old city of Sakala there is a monastery with more than one hundred
monks, all of whom study Hinayana teachings. Formerly Vasubandhu Bodhi-
sattva composed the Paramartha-satya-sastra at this monastery. Beside it
is a stupa over two hundred feet high built at a place where the four past
buddhas preached the Dharma. There are also the ruins of a place where the
four buddhas used to walk up and down. Five or six /i to the northwest of
the monastery there is another stupa over two hundred feet high built by
King Asoka at a place where the four past buddhas had preached the Dharma.

Going for more than ten /i to the northeast of the new capital city, I reached
a stone stupa over two hundred feet high built by King Asoka at a place where
the Tathagata had once halted halfway on his evangelical journey to the north.
Itis said in the Record of India that there are many relic bones preserved in
the stupa and on fast days they often emit a light.

From here going eastward for more than five hundred /;, I reached the country
of Cinabhukti (in the domain of North India). The country of Cinabhukti is
more than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is fourteen or fifteen
li in circuit. It is abundant in cereals but fruit trees are scarce. The inhabitants
are enrolled in household registration and live in peace and contentment.
The state treasury has rich and profuse resources. The climate is temperate
and warm and the people are timid and weak by custom. They study the the-
ories of both the transcendental and the conventional truth in a comprehensive
way and believe in heterodoxy as well as orthodoxy. There are ten monasteries
and eight deva temples.

101

889b

889c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

When King Kaniska occupied the throne his fame reached neighboring
countries and his prestige covered distant lands with dissimilar customs. In
fear of his influence, a vassal state to the west of the Yellow River [in China]
sent a hostage to him. King Kaniska received the hostage with munificent
hospitality, provided him with three residences for the three seasons of the
year, and appointed four divisions of soldiers to serve as his guards. The
winter residence of the hostage was in this district and was called Cinabhukti
(known as Hanfeng, “China Fief,” in Chinese), which was also the name of
the country where he had sojourned.

In this district, and beyond it in the various parts of India, there had been
no pears or peaches; it was the hostage who first planted them. Thus peaches
are called cinani (“brought from China") and pears are called cinardjaputra
(“Chinese prince"). Therefore the people of this country have a deep respect
for the East Land and they often said to one another, pointing at me, “This
is a man from the land of our former king."

Going to the northeast for more than five hundred /i from the capital city,
Ireached Tamasavana-samgharama (known as Anlin, *Dark Forest," in Chi-
nese), where there are more than three hundred monks who study the teachings
of the Sarvastivada school. They behave in a solemn and respectful manner
with pure and high virtues. They are particularly learned in the doctrines of
the Hinayana schools. All the thousand buddhas of the bhadrakalpa will hold
meetings of heavenly and human beings at this place to speak on the profound
and marvelous Dharma. In the three-hundredth year after the nirvana of
Sakya Tathagata, the śāstra master Katyayana (wrongly transcribed as
Jiazhanyan in olden times) composed the Abhidharma-jfiana-prasthana-
sastra at this monastery.

Inside Dark Forest Monastery there is a stupa more than two hundred feet
high built by King Asoka. Beside it are the ruins of places where the four
past buddhas used to sit and walk up and down. Small stupas and large caves,
of which the number is unknown, lie close together. They were built since
the beginning of the present ka/pa, when arhats of different stages passed
away at this place, but I cannot give a full description of these events. Their
holy tooth relics are still kept there. The range of hills that encircles the
monastery is over twenty /i in circuit. There are hundreds and thousands of

102

Fascicle IV

stupas containing the Buddha's relic bones, built so closely together that
their shadows touch one another.

Going northeast from here for more than one hundred forty or fifty li, I
reached the country of Jalamdhara (in the domain of North India). The country
of Jalamdhara is over one thousand /i from east to west and more than eight
hundred /i from south to north; the capital city is twelve or thirteen /i in
circuit. It yields cereals and has plenty of nonglutinous rice. The trees in the
forests are luxuriant and flowers and fruit are abundant. The climate is tem-
perate and warm and the people are violent and indomitable by custom and
ugly in appearance, but all their households are wealthy. There are over fifty
monasteries with more than two thousand monks, who have specialized knowl-
edge of both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. There are three deva temples
with over five hundred heretics, who all smear their bodies with ashes.

A previous king of this country had venerated heretics, but he later met
an arhat from whom he heard the Dharma and he came to understand and
believe in it. The king of Central India, appreciating his sincere faith, empow-
ered him to be the sole controller of all affairs connected with the Triple Gem
in all of the five parts of India. [The king of Jalamdhara] made no distinction
between different regions and, forgetting his personal likes and dislikes, he
supervised all the monks, skillfully pointing out even the most minute of
their good and evil deeds. Therefore virtuous monks of good repute were
highly respected, while those who violated the disciplinary rules were
denounced and punished. At all sacred sites he erected memorial buildings,
either stupas or monasteries, which were found everywhere in India.

Going from here to the northeast for more than seven hundred /i over pre-
cipitous ranges, through deep valleys, and along perilous paths, and trudging
on dangerous tracks, I reached the country of Kulüta (in the domain of North
India). The country of Kulüta is more than three thousand /i in circuit, sur-
rounded by mountains, and the capital city is fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit.
The soil is fertile and cereals are sown and planted in season. Flowers and
fruit are abundant and various kinds of grasses and trees are luxuriant. As it
borders the Snow Mountains, it is rich in precious medicinal herbs. It yields
gold, silver, red copper, crystal, and brass. The climate is somewhat cold but
there 1s little snow or frost. The people have ugly features and suffer from

103

890a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

goiter as well as edema. They are violent and furious by nature and uphold
the spirit of bravery. There are more than twenty monasteries with over one
thousand monks, most of whom study Mahayana teachings; a few of them
practice the tenets of various [Hinayana] schools. There are fifteen deva tem-
ples with heretics living together. On the steep mountains there are caves sit-
uated in connection with one another, which were either the lodgings of
arhats or the abodes of rsis.

In this country there is a stupa built by King Ašoka in memory of the
event of the Tathagata coming to this place in olden times to preach the
Dharma for the conversion of the people.

From here the road, leading to the north for one thousand and eight or
nine hundred /i by perilous paths and over mountains and valleys, takes one
to the country of Lahul. Going further to the north over two thousand /i along
a route full of difficulties and obstacles, in cold winds and wafting snowflakes,
one could reach the country of Marsa (also known as the country of Sanbohe).

From the country of Kulüta going south for more than seven hundred /i over
a great mountain across a big river, I reached the country of Satadru (in the
domain of North India). The country of Satadru is more than two thousand
li in circuit, bordering on a big river in the west. The capital city is seventeen
or eighteen /i in circuit. Cereals are grown in abundance and fruit is plentiful.
It produces much gold and silver and also yields pearls. The people's dress
and utensils are bright and clean and their clothes are extravagant and gor-
geous. The climate is hot and the people are honest and amiable by custom.
Their disposition is kind and gentle and the superior and inferior are in proper
order. They earnestly believe in the buddha-dharma with a true attitude of
respect. Within and outside the royal city there are ten monasteries, which
are in desolation and have few monks. Three or four /i to the southeast of
the city there is a stupa over two hundred feet high built by King Asoka.
Beside it are the ruins of places where the four past buddhas used to sit and
walk up and down.

Going from here to the southwest for over eight hundred /i, I reached the
country of Pariyatra (in the domain of Central India). The country of Pariyatra
is more than three thousand /i in circuit and the capital city is fourteen or

104

Fascicle IV

fifteen /i in circuit. It yields cereals and winter wheat in abundance and has a
particular species of rice that is ready for harvest sixty days after planting. It
has plenty of cattle and sheep but flowers and fruit are scarce. The climate is
hot and the people are violent and furious by custom. They do not esteem
learning and they profess false teachings. The king, a descendant of the vaisya
caste, is a man of courage and military skills. There are eight monasteries
standing in an extremely ruinous condition, with a few monks who study the
teachings of the Hinayana schools. There are over ten deva temples with more
than a thousand devotees.

Going from here to the east for more than five hundred /i, I reached the country
of Mathura (in the domain of Central India). The country of Mathura is more
than five thousand /i in circuit and the capital city 1s over twenty /i in circuit.
The land is fertile and agriculture is the main occupation. Mango trees are
grown by the people in their homesteads. There are two species of this fruit,
one is small and turns yellow when ripe; the other large and always remains
green. The country produces fine kapok cloth and gold. The climate 15 hot
and the people are good and genial by custom. They like to work for the hap-
piness of the departed, they respect the virtuous, and they advocate learning.
There are over twenty monasteries with more than two thousand monks who
study the teachings of both the Mahayana and Hinayana schools. There are
five deva temples where heretics live together. There are three stupas, all
built by King Asoka, and numerous traces left by the four past buddhas.

There are also stupas containing the relic bones of the holy disciples of
Sakya Tathagata, such as Sariputra (formerly known as Shelizi or Shelifu in
wrongly abbreviated forms), Maudgalyayana (formerly known as Mujianlian
erroneously), Pürnamaitrayaniputra (known as Mancizi, *Full Compassion
Son," in Chinese, and formerly transcribed in a wrongly abbreviated form
as Midouluonizi), Upali, Ananda, and Rahula (formerly known as Luohou
or Louyun, both being erroneous and abbreviated forms). There are stupas
for such bodhisattvas as Mafijusri (known as Miaojixiang, “Wonderful Aus-
pices," in Chinese, formerly known as Rushou, Wenshushili, or Manshushili
and wrongly translated as “Wonderful Virtue"), and others.

In the three fast months of the year and on each of the six fast days of the
month, the monks vie with their friends and acquaintances to carry ritual

105

890b

890c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

implements and many rare and strange articles to offer to the images of their
particular patrons. Those who study the Abhidharma make offerings to Sari-
putra, those who practice meditation make offerings to Maudgalyayana, the
sutra reciters to Pürnamaitrayaniputra, the Vinaya students to Upali, the
bhiksunis to Ananda, the srdmaneras to Rahula, and the Mahayana students
to the various bodhisattvas. On the day offerings to the various stupas are to
be made in competition pearled banners are displayed and bejeweled canopies
arranged in rows; the smoke of incense pervades the air like clouds and
flowers are scattered in such abundance that they obscure the sun and moon
and cause great tumult in the valleys. The king and his ministers perform
good deeds as their bound duty.

Going east for five or six /i from the city I came to a hill monastery, of
which the chambers are carved on the precipice of a mountain, with an
entrance facing the valley. It was built by Venerable Upagupta (known as
Jinhu, *Near Protection," in Chinese). In the monastery is a stupa preserving
the fingernails of the Tathagata.

On the steep rock to the north of the [hill] monastery there is a cave more
than twenty feet in height and over thirty feet in breadth. Fine chips four
inches long [used as counters] are accumulated in the cave. When Venerable
Upagupta was preaching the Dharma to convert the people every married
couple that attained arhatship put down a counter here, but single members
of a family were not counted even though they had become arhats.

Going twenty-four or five /i to the southeast from the cave I came to a
large dried-up pond with a stupa beside it. Formerly when the Tathagata was
once going across this place, a monkey offered him some honey. The Buddha
had it mixed with water and distributed the beverage to the assembly of
monks. The monkey was so delighted that it gamboled with joy, fell into a
pit, and died. By the merits of this offering it was reborn as a human being.

Not far away to the north of the [dried-up] pond there is a large wood in
which are traces left by the four past buddhas when they walked up and
down. Beside it are the places where the one thousand two hundred and fifty
great arhats, Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, and so on, practiced meditation and
stupas have been built to mark the traces. When the Tathagata was living in
the world he frequently visited this country, and trees have been planted at
the places where he preached the Dharma.

106

Fascicle IV

From here going to the northeast for more than five hundred /;, I reached the
country of Sthane$vara (in the domain of Central India). The country of
Sthane$vara is more than seven thousand /i in circuit; the capital city is over
twenty /i in circuit. The land is fertile and crops grow in abundance. The cli-
mate is hot and the people are unkind and ignoble by custom. The house-
holders are wealthy and vie with each other in showing extravagance. The
people are learned in art of magic and they highly esteem unusual capabilities.
Most of them engage in trade in pursuit of profit, while a few are farmers.
Exceptional goods of various places are collected in this country. There are
three monasteries with over seven hundred monks, all of whom study the
teachings of the Hinayana schools. Deva temples amount to over one hundred
and have numerous heretics.

Around the great city within a radius of two hundred /i, the district is
called by the people of the country the Land of Blessedness. I heard some
old people say that the five parts of India were formerly ruled separately by
two kings. Their territories were adjacent to each other and the two kings
carried out mutual invasions in endless wars. Then they agreed to fight a
final battle to see who would be the master, so as to establish peace for their
subjects. But all the common people bore a grudge against war and would
not obey the kings' orders [to fight]. Thinking that it was difficult to discuss
the matter with his subjects, the king [of Sthanesvara] considered that the
gods might be able to arouse his people and their power might help him
achieve his exploits. There was then a brahman who was known for his high
talents. [The king] secretly sent him a roll of silk and invited him to the back
chambers of the palace to compose a Dharma book, which was then hidden
in a rock cave. After a long lapse of many years, the cave was covered over
by the trees growing at the place.

One day at an audience in the morning, the king said to his ministers, “As
a man of no virtue I have unworthily occupied the throne. The Lord of Heaven
has favored me with a dream in which he granted me a spiritual book, which
is now hidden under a certain peak on a certain mountain." Then he gave
orders to search for the book and, to the delight of the ministers as well as
the pleasure of the common people, the book was found in a forest on a
mountain. The contents of the book were made known to all people far and
near. It reads briefly as follows:

107

891a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The [wheel of] life and death is endless and rotates incessantly without
limit. Those who are submerged in the sea of rebirth cannot save them-
selves. I have a wonderful device to release you from all kinds of suffering.
The region two hundred /i wide around the royal city is the Land of Blessed-
ness, handed down by former kings from generation to generation, but in
the long lapse of time the inscriptions have been obliterated. As the people
are not aware of the fact they are sunk in the sea of suffering. What would
people say if we failed to rescue those who are being drowned? You people
will be reborn among humans if you die fighting your enemies, and if you
slaughter many innocent people you will enjoy happiness in heaven. Obe-
dient grandsons and filial sons serving their parents in touring this region
will gain infinite blessedness. Why should you lose the chance to obtain
much blessedness by performing a small meritorious deed? Once the
human body is lost you will suffer in the darkness of the three evil states
of rebirth. Therefore every one of you should cultivate good karma.

Thereafter all the people practiced the military arts and looked upon death
as going home.

The king then ordered that brave and high-spirited warriors be enlisted
and in the war that took place between the two counties the numerous corpses
of those killed on the battlefield piled up high, so that even now skeletons
are scattered about in the wilderness. Because this happened in ancient times
the bodies of the fighters were very large in size. This region is known as
the Land of Blessedness by tradition of the country.

Four or five /i to the northwest of the city is a stupa more than two hundred
feet high built by King Asoka. The bricks are all yellowish-red in color, very
lustrous and clean. It contains one sheng of the Tathagata’s relic bones, which
often emit a light with many divine manifestations.

Going south for over one hundred /i from the city, I came to Govinda
Monastery, which consists of storied pavilions with the ridges of the roofs
connected together, and terraces of many tiers standing one higher than
another. The monks lead a pure and strict life and comport themselves in a
calm and refined manner.

From here going northeast for more than four hundred /;, I reached the country
of Srughna (in the domain of Central India). The country of Srughna is more

108

Fascicle IV

than six thousand /i in circuit, bordering the Ganges River on the east, with
big mountains lying at its back in the north and the Yamuna River flowing
through the middle of its territory. The capital city 1s over twenty /i in circuit
and borders the Yamuna River on the east. Although the city is in a desolate
condition the foundations are still strong. The native products and customs
and habits are the same as in the country of Sthanesvara. The people are honest
by nature and believe in heretical theories. They esteem the learning of arts
and crafts and advocate the cultivation of blessedness and wisdom. There are
five monasteries with over one thousand monks, most of whom study Hinayana
teachings, but a few learn the tenets of other schools. They discuss the subtle
teachings and deliberate on the abstruse doctrines. Talented scholars of different
places come to hold discussions with them in order to resolve their doubts.
There are one hundred deva temples with numerous heretics.

To the southeast of the great city, outside the eastern gate of a big monastery
at the west of the Yamuna River, there is a stupa built by King Asoka at a
place where the Tathagata once preached the Dharma to convert the people
in olden times. Beside it another stupa contains hair and fingernail relics of
the Tathagata. Hair and fingernail relics of Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, and
other arhats are preserved in several tens of stupas built around here. After
the nirvana of the Tathagata, the country was led astray by heretics and the
people abandoned the right views. The five monasteries now in existence
were built by foreign sastra masters who had defeated the heretics and brah-
mans in debates at the sites where the monasteries were subsequently built.

Going east from the Yamuna River for over eight hundred /i, I came to
the Ganges River, the source of which is three or four /i wide flowing southeast
to the sea; it is over ten /i at its mouth. The water is dark blue in color with
great waves rising in it. Although there are many strange monsters [in the
river], they do not harm people. The water is sweet and fine grains of sand
come down with the current. According to local popular records, this river
is known as the Water of Blessedness and one’s accumulated sins can be
expiated by taking a bath in it. Those who drown themselves in the river will
be reborn in heaven to enjoy happiness, and a recently deceased person whose
corpse is thrown into the river will not fall into the evil states of existence
in his next rebirth. By raising waves and blockading the current the souls of
the dead will be saved.

109

891b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Deva Bodhisattva of the country of Simhala was a man learned in the theory
of reality; he understood the nature of all dharmas. Having pity for ignorant
people, he came here to enlighten them. At the time when all the people, men
and women, old and young, assembled at the banks of the river, raised waves,
and blockaded the current, Deva Bodhisattva mingled with them to draw up
the water and lowered his head to push the current in the reverse direction,
counter to the efforts of the other people. A heretic said to him, “Why are
you doing it in a strange way?" Deva Bodhisattva said, "My parents and
other kinsfolk are in the country of Simhala and I fear that they may be suf-
fering from hunger and thirst. So I am trying to send this water from afar to
save them." The heretic said, “You are mistaken. You did not consider the
matter well and behaved erroneously. Your home country is far away, separated
[from here] by big mountains and rivers. To agitate the water here with the
hope of saving those who are hungry there is like someone who goes backward
in order to advance. This is unthinkable !” Deva Bodhisattva said, “If sinners
in the nether world can be benefited by this water, why could it not also save
the people separated [from here] by mountains and rivers?" The heretics then
realized their fault and acknowledged defeat. They renounced their erroneous
views, accepted the right Dharma, corrected their mistakes, and made a fresh
start by wishing to listen to the instructions [of Deva Bodhisattva].

Crossing the river to the east bank I reached the country of Matipura (in the
domain of Central India). The country of Matipura is more than six thousand
li in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. It yields rice and
wheat and has plenty of flowers and fruit. The climate is temperate and the
people are honest by custom. They esteem the learning of arts and crafts and
are learned in the art of sorcery. Half of the population believes in heterodox
religions and the other half in the right teachings [of Buddhism]. The king is
a sudra by caste who does not believe in the buddha-dharma but worships
the devas. There are over ten monasteries with more than eight hundred monks,
most of whom study the teachings of the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana
Buddhism. There are over fifty deva temples where heretics live together.

Four or five li to the south of the great city is a small monastery with over
fifty monks. Formerly the sastra master Gunaprabha (known as Deguang,
“Virtue Light,” in Chinese) composed at this place the Tattva-satya-sastra

110

Fascicle IV

and other treatises, totaling over one hundred books. The sastra master was
eminently smart when he was young and when he had grown up he became
an intelligent, vastly learned, and versatile scholar, possessing a good memory
and erudite learning. At first Gunaprabha studied Mahayana teachings but
before he could thoroughly understand these profound teachings he came
upon the Vibhasa-sastra, and he changed his course of study and devoted
himself to learning Hinayana theories. He wrote several tens of treatises to
refute the principles of the Mahayana teachings and to promote Hinayana
theories. He also wrote several tens of secular books to denounce the classical
works written by his predecessors. He pondered the Buddhist scriptures and
found more than ten dubious points that he could not solve and despite his
studies for a long time his doubts were not resolved.

There was then the arhat Devasena (known as Tianjun, “Heavenly Army,”
in Chinese), who used to frequent Tusita Heaven [where Maitreya Bodhisattva
resided]. Gunaprabha wished to see Maitreya to seek instructions for the
solution of his doubts and Devasena brought him to the heavenly palace by
his supernatural powers. Upon seeing Maitreya, [Gunaprabha] would not
salute him in the proper way. Devasena said to him, “Maitreya Bodhisattva
is next only to the Buddha in position. Why are you so conceited as to not
worship him? Since you desire to study under his guidance how can you be
so unruly toward him?" Gunaprabha said in reply, “What you, Venerable Sir,
have said is truly a good admonition but I am a fully ordained bhiksu, a home-
less disciple, while Maitreya Bodhisattva 1s enjoying the bliss of heaven and
Is not a renunciant monk. I am afraid that it is unbefitting of me to worship
him." The bodhisattva, knowing that [Gunaprabha's] conceited mind was so
stubborn that he was not a competent person to hear the Dharma, would not
resolve his doubts, even though Gunaprabha came up to heaven three times.
[Gunaprabha] said to Devasena that he wished to see [Maitreya] Bodhisattva
once more so as to worship him but Devasena detested his conceit and con-
temptuously ignored his request. Having not satisfied his wish, Gunaprabha
retired to a forest, holding a grudge, to practice meditation for the development
of supernatural powers but as he did not eliminate his conceit he could not
attain sainthood.

Three or four /i to the north of Gunaprabha's monastery there is a big
monastery with more than two hundred monks, all of whom study Hinayana

111

891с

892a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

teachings. This is the place where the sastra master Samghabhadra passed
away. A native of the country of Kasmira, the Sastra master was an intelligent
and learned man who enjoyed a good reputation from the time of his youth
and made a profound study ofthe Vibhasa-sastra of the Sarvastivada school.

There was then Vasubandhu Bodhisattva, whose mind was fixed on the
abstruse Way, seeking implications beyond words. In order to refute the
Vibhasa masters he composed the Abhidharmakosa-sastra, a work written
in fine and dexterous language that explains the meanings in a pure and sub-
lime manner. When Samghabhadra read this work he made up his mind to
probe into its contents. After making a profound study of the work for twelve
years, he composed the Kosakaraka-sastra in twenty-five thousand stanzas
and eight hundred thousand words. This book consists of words of far-reaching
import, seeking the depths of abstruse and subtle theories. He said to his dis-
ciples, “With my outstanding competence and correct reasoning, go and
refute Vasubandhu to frustrate his sharpness and break the old man's monopoly
on eminent fame." Three or four of his prominent disciples took Samgha-
bhadra's treatise and went to visit Vasubandhu.

At that time Vasubandhu was in Sakula City in the country of Takka.
When the news arrived that Samghabhadra was coming Vasubandhu packed
up his things. His bewildered disciples came forward to remonstrate with
him, saying, “Great Master, your virtue surpasses that of former sages and
your unique fame spreads far in the present world. All scholars far and near
have great esteem for you. Why are you so alarmed at the news of Samghab-
hadra's arrival? Even if he is coming to humiliate us we will boldly face
him." Vasubandhu said, “It is not because I wish to avoid this man that I am
going far away. Looking around this country, I find no one skillful and com-
petent enough to decide the case. Samghabhadra is a young man, eloquent
in debate, while I am advanced in years and could not hold a discussion with
him. I wish to defeat his heterodox views with one word and I intend to lure
him to Central India to meet venerable and learned scholars who can discern
truth from falsehood and find out right and wrong." He then asked his com-
panion to carry his bookcase for him and soon started on the long journey.

The sastra master Samghabhadra arrived at the monastery one day after
[Vasubandhu's departure] and suddenly found himself short of breath. So he

112

Fascicle IV

wrote a letter of apology to Vasubandhu, in which he said, “After the nirvana
of the Tathagata his disciples split into different sects and schools, each prop-
agating his own theories in specific ways. They defended those who belonged
to their own sects and despised those who were affiliated with other groups.
Being an ignorant man of shallow learning, I had the opportunity to pursue
knowledge under my teachers and read the Abhidharmakosa-sastra composed
by you for the refutation of the principles of the Vibhasa masters. I overrated
my abilities and worked for many years on a treatise, [the Kosakaraka-sastra, |
with the intention of making it a support for the correct theories. My scheme
was great but my wisdom too small, and the time of my death 1s approaching.
You are a bodhisattva who expounds the subtle sayings and propagates the
supreme truth. I would be happy if you would not deny what opinions I hold
so that my treatise might be preserved. Then I can die without regret."

He selected some of his disciples who were eloquent in debate and said
to them, “I am really a man of the younger generation and despised the sages
of older times. What can I do, if such is my fate? I shall be dying soon. You
should take this letter together with my treatise to apologize to that bodhisattva
and show repentance on my behalf.” As soon as he finished these words, he
passed away.

His disciples took the letter and went to Vasubandhu, and said to him,
*Our teacher Samghabhadra has passed away. He left word for us to send
this letter to express his self-reproach and apologize to you for his mistakes,
hoping that you would not bring down his reputation, though this may be
beyond our expectation."

Vasubandhu Bodhisattva read the letter and looked over the treatise for
a long while before he spoke to the disciples, saying, “The sastra master
Samghabhadra was a young scholar of intelligence. In his treatise the theories
are not sufficiently elucidated but his phraseology is sharp enough. If I wish
to confute this treatise it would be as easy as pointing at my palm. Considering
the he request made on his deathbed, and having noticed the words he spoke
after realizing the difficulties in his attempt, I shall comply, out of the principle
of righteousness, with his long-cherished ambition; moreover, the views of
my school are also expounded in his treatise." Then he changed the title of
the treatise to the Nyayanusara-sastra.

113

892b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

[Vasubandhu's] disciples remonstrated with him, saying, “Before Samgha-
badra's death, you, a great teacher, went far away from him and now, after
having obtained his treatise, you changed its title. How will any of your dis-
ciples be able to bear the shame?" In order to clear up their doubt Vasubandhu
Bodhisattva uttered the following stanza:

When a king of lions

Runs away from a pig,

The wise should know

Which is the winner in strength.

After Samghabhadra's death his body was cremated and his ashes were
preserved in a stupa, which is still in existence, built in a mango grove over
two hundred paces to the northwest of the monastery.

Beside the mango grove there is а stupa containing the remains of sastra
master Vimalamitra (known as Wugouyou, “Stainless Friend," in Chinese).
This šastra master was a native of the country of Kasmira and became a
monk of the Sarvastivada school. He was widely learned in various scriptures
and studied the treatises of diverse sects, and he traveled throughout the five
parts of India to learn the abstruse texts of the Tripitaka. After he had gained
fame and completed his studies he started on his homeward journey, and on
the way he came across the stupa of Samghabhadra. He patted the stupa and
said with a sigh, “You, sastra master, were a man of magnanimity and emi-
nence and extolled the great teachings. Why did you live such a short life
and die at the time when you were just about to defeat the heterodox schools
and establish your own sect? I, Vimalamitra, am a man of shallow learning,
and although we have lived in different times I admire your righteousness
and have always remembered your virtue for many years. Vasubandhu is
dead but his theories are still in vogue. I shall exhaust my knowledge to write
treatises for all the scholars in Jambudvipa to efface the fame of the Mahayana
teachings and the name of Vasubandhu. This will be an unending task but I
shall do my best to fulfill it."

After having said these words, [Vimalamitra] suddenly became delirious
and five tongues stuck out of his mouth, which oozed hot blood. Knowing
that he would surely die he wrote a letter of repentance, saying, “The
Mahayana doctrines are the ultimate truth of the buddha-dharma, which is

114

Fascicle IV

beyond the scope of both conception and substance and has deep and abstruse
principles. I have been so imprudent as to denounce an advanced teacher in
my ignorance. Karmic retribution is apparent and it is just and right that I
should lose my life. I venture to advise my fellow students to consider me as
an example. Be careful in making your aspirations and do not cherish doubt."

At the moment of Vimalamitra's death the earth quaked and a pit formed
at the place where he died. His traveling companions cremated his corpse
and collected the ashes, over which a memorial was built. At that time an
arhat witnessed the event and said with a sigh, “What a pity, how sorrowful
it is! This sastra master waywardly grasped his own views and vilified the
Mahayana doctrines, and he fell into the hell of incessant suffering."

In the northwest of this country of [Matipura], on the east bank of the
Ganges, is the city of Mayüra, which is more than twenty /i in circuit and has
a dense population; there are many watercourses that interflow with one
another. It produces brass, crystal, and valuable articles. Not far away from
the city on the bank of the Ganges River is a great deva temple with many
miraculous manifestations. Inside the shrine compound is a pond whose banks
are inlaid with slabs of stone. Water is diverted from the Ganges to replenish
the pond. People from all the five parts of India call it the Gate of the Ganges
and it is a place to perform meritorious deeds and expiate sins. There are
always hundreds and thousands of people flocking from afar to bathe them-
selves in the pond. Philanthropic kings have constructed almshouses to provide
isolated, solitary, and needy people with free food and medical service.

From here going north for more than three hundred /7, I reached the country
of Brahmapura (in the domain of North India). The country of Brahmapura,
which is over four thousand /; in circuit, is surrounded by mountains on all
four sides and the capital city is more than twenty /i in circuit. It is densely
populated and the inhabitants are rich and prosperous. The land is fertile and
crops are sown and reaped in a timely manner. It yields brass and crystal
and the climate is somewhat cold. The people are rude and violent by custom
and few of them learn arts and crafts; the majority engages in business to
gain profits. They believe in both heterodox and orthodox teachings. There
are five monasteries with a few monks, and more than ten deva temples with
heretics living together.

115

892c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

In the Great Snow Mountains to the north of this country is the country
of Suvarnagotra (known as Jinshi, “Gold Clan," in Chinese). It produces
gold of the best quality, hence the name of the country. It is long from east
to west and narrow from south to north. This is what is known as the Eastern
Woman's Country, as it is has been ruled from generation to generation by
a woman. Her husband is the king but he does not administer state affairs.
The men's only duties are is to serve in the army and cultivate the fields. The
soll is good for growing winter wheat and many sheep and horses are reared.
The climate is severely cold and the people are violent by nature. In the east
it borders the country of Tubo, in the north it adjoins the country of Khotan,
and in the west it abuts the country of Sanbohe.

Going from Matipura to the southeast for more than four hundred /;, I reached
the country of Govisana (in the domain of Central India). The country of
Govisana is over two thousand /i in circuit and the capital city is fourteen or
fifteen /i in circuit. Lofty mountains serve as impregnable barriers to the city
and the inhabitants are rich and prosperous. Flowery woods and ponds and
pools are to be seen everywhere, one after the other. The climate and natural
products are the same as in the country of Matipura. The people are sincere
and honest by custom and they are assiduous in learning and fond of doing
meritorious works. Most of them believe in heterodox teachings, seeking
happiness in the present life. There are two monasteries with over one hundred
monks, all of whom study the Hinayana teachings. There are more than thirty
deva temples where heretics live together.

In an old monastery beside the capital city there is a stupa more than two
hundred feet high built by King Asoka. Formerly the Tathagata once preached
on the various principles of the Dharma at this place for one month. Beside
it there are traces where the four past buddhas used to sit and walk up and
down. Alongside the traces there are two stupas, each over ten feet high, con-
taining hair and fingernail relics of the Tathagata.

Going from here to the southeast for more than four hundred /i, I reached
the country of Ahicchattra (in the domain of Central India). The country of
Ahicchattra is more than three thousand /i in circuit and the capital city,
which is built upon strongly fortified positions, is seventeen or eighteen /i
in circuit. The country produces rice and wheat and has many woods and

116

Fascicle IV

springs. The climate is mild and pleasant and the people are sincere and
honest by custom. They take delight in studying the Way and are diligent in
learning, and they possess much talent and extensive knowledge. There are
over ten monasteries with more than one thousand monks, who study the
teachings of the Sammitiya sect of the Hinayana school. There are nine deva
temples with more than three hundred followers who are worshipers of I$vara
and smear themselves with ashes.

Beside a dragon pond outside the city there is a stupa built by King Asoka.
Formerly the Tathagata preached the Dharma for the dragon of this place for
seven days. Beside it there are four smaller stupas built at places where the
four past buddhas sat and walked up and down.

From here going east for two hundred sixty or seventy /i and crossing the
Ganges River to the south, I reached the country of Vilasana (in the domain
of Central India). The country of Vilasana is more than two thousand /i in
circuit and the capital city 1s over ten /i in circuit. The climate and natural
products are the same as in the country of Ahicchattra. The people are fierce
and violent by custom but they have an inclination for learning. They believe
in heretical theories; only a few of them venerate the buddha-dharma. There
are two monasteries with three hundred monks, all of whom study Mahayana
teachings. There are five deva temples, and heretics live together.

In an old monastery inside the capital city there is a stupa whose base,
though dilapidated, remains over one hundred feet in height. It was built by
King A$oka at the place where the Tathagata preached the Skandha-dhatu-
ayatana-sütra for seven days. Beside it are traces where the four past buddhas
used to sit and walk up and down.

From here going southeast for more than two hundred /;, I reached the country
of Kapitha (formerly known as the country of Sengjiashe, in the domain of
Central India). The country of Kapitha is more than two thousand /i in circuit
and the capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. The climate and natural products
are the same as in the country of Vilasana. The people are honest and amiable
by custom and most of them learn handicrafts. There are four monasteries
with over one thousand monks, all of whom study the teachings of the
Sammittya sect of the Hinayana school. There are ten deva temples where
heretics live together, all of whom serve and worship Isvara.

117

893a

893b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Over twenty li to the west of the city there is a large, beautifully constructed
monastery consisting of many lofty and spacious buildings adorned with
exquisite carvings. The holy images and statues are made in a most stately
manner. There are several hundred monks who study the teachings of the
Sammitiya sect; several myriads of laypeople, attendants of the monks, live
in their houses beside the monastery.

Inside the great wall of the monastery there are three stairways [made of
precious substances] standing in a row from south to north and sloping down
to the east. This was the place where the Tathagata descended from Trayas-
trimsa Heaven and returned to earth. Formerly the Tathagata set out from
Jetavana Garden and ascended to Devapura (the residence of Indra); he stayed
in the Hall of the Good Dharma, where he preached the Dharma for his
mother. At the end of three months he wished to descend, so Indra employed
his divine power to construct the stairways. The middle flight of stairs was
made of gold, the left one of crystal, and the right one of silver. The Tathagata
started from the Hall of the Good Dharma and, accompanied by a multitude
of heavenly beings, he walked down the middle flight of stairs. Brahma,
holding a white fly-whisk, walked down the silver stairs, attending the Buddha
at his right, while Indra, carrying a precious canopy, walked down the crystal
stairs, attending the Buddha at his left. The multitude of heavenly beings
flying high in the air scattered flowers and praised the virtues of the Buddha.

A few hundred years ago the stairways were still there but they have now
completely sunk down. The kings of various countries, regretting that they
had not seen the holy structures, piled up bricks and stones on the old base,
ornamented with gems and jewels, to the height of seventy feet to imitate
the original precious stairways. A shrine room was built on top with a stone
image of the Buddha installed in it, while on the left and right flights of stairs
there are the statues of Indra and Brahma respectively, in the forms of their
original postures, as if they were walking down. Beside the stairs is a stone
pillar more than seventy feet high erected by King Asoka. Dark purple in
color, it is made of lustrous hard stone with a fine grain and on top there is
a carved lion crouching and facing toward the stairs. On the surface all around
the pillar various kinds of strange figures are carved, which appear in a shad-
owy way to viewers according to their good or evil deeds.

118

Fascicle IV

Not far away from the precious stairs is a stupa built at a place where the
four past buddhas sat and walked up and down, and besuide it is another
stupa built at a place where the Tathagata bathed. The temple beside the stupa
was built where the Tathagata sat in meditation. Beside the temple there 1s
a great stone terrace, fifty paces long and seven feet high, at the place where
the Tathagata walked up and down. The footprints have the shapes of lotus
flowers. On the left and right sides of the terrace there are two small stupas,
one built by Indra and the other by Brahma.

In front of the stupas built by Indra and Brahma is the place where the
bhiksuni Utpalavarna, wishing to be the first one to see the Buddha, appeared
in the form of a universal monarch (cakravartin). When the Tathagata returned
from Devapura to Jambudvipa, Subhüti (known as Shanxian, “Good Mani-
festation," in Chinese, formerly transcribed as Xufuti or Xuputi and translated
as “Good Auspices," all erroneously) was sitting in meditation in a cave. He
reflected, *Now the Buddha, attended by human and heavenly beings, is return-
ing to earth. Being such as I am, what should I do? I have heard the Buddha
say that knowing the emptiness of all things and understanding the nature of
all things are to see the Buddha's spiritual body with the eye of wisdom."

At that time the bhiksuni Utpalavarna, wishing to be the first to see the
Buddha, appeared in the form of a universal monarch accompanied by atten-
dants holding the seven kinds of precious objects and guarded by the four
divisions of troops. When she came to the place of the Tathagata she resumed
the form of a bhiksuni. The Tathagata told her, “You are not the first person
to see me. Subhüti, who has insight into the emptiness of all things, has
already seen my spiritual body."

Within the enclosure of the holy traces divine manifestations occurred in
succession. To the southeast of the great stupa there is a pond in which a
dragon always protected the holy traces, and under its divine protection they
were not easily violated. The stup and pond became dilapidated through ero-
sion over time but no human effort could destroy them.

From here going southeast for less than two hundred /i, I reached the country
of Kanyakubja (known as Qunüchengguo, “Country of Hunchbacked Maidens,”
in the domain of Central India).
End of Fascicle IV of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

119

Fascicle V

Six Countries, from Kanyakubja

to Visaka
1. The Country of Kanyakubja 4. The Country of Prayaga
2. The Country of Ayodhya 5. The Country of Kausambi
3. The Country of Ayamukha 6. The Country of Visaka

The country of Kanyakubja is more than four thousand /i in circuit and the
capital city, with the Ganges River at the west, is over twenty /i in length
and four or five /i in breadth. The city wall and moat are strongly built and
terraces and pavilions are to be seen everywhere. Flowery woods are brilliant
in color and the ponds are filled with transparent water, like a mirror. Rare
goods of different places are collected here. The inhabitants live happily in
abundance and their families are rich and prosperous. There are many kinds
of flowers and fruit and crops are sown and reaped in good time. The climate
is mild and pleasant and the people are simple and honest by custom. Their
features are handsome and graceful and their clothes and adornments are
bright and resplendent. They earnestly study arts and literature and talk in
a lucid and far-sighted manner. Heterodoxy and orthodoxy are each each
by half of the population and both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings are
studied by the people. There are more than two hundred deva temples with
several thousand heretics.

In the age when the human life span was very long, the old capital city
of the country of Kanyakubja was called Kusumapura (known as Huagong,
*Flowery Palace," in Chinese). The king, named Brahmadatta, was a person
endowed with both bliss and wisdom; he was well versed in literature and
the arts of war. His prestige kept Jambudvipa in awe of him and his renown
spread to the neighboring countries. He had one thousand sons, all of whom
possessed the qualities of wisdom and bravery as well as magnanimity and
resoluteness. He also had one thousand daughters who were beautiful in fea-
tures and had refined manners.

121

893c

894a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

There was then a rsi (sage) who lived by the banks of the Ganges. He
concentrated his mind in meditation for several myriads of years and his
form became like that of a dried-up tree. Some migratory birds alighted upon
him and dropped a fruit ofthe nyagrodha (banyan) tree on his shoulder. With
the passage of many hot and cold seasons the fruit grew into a big tree with
branches growing downward to form a vault. After many years the rsi rose
from his meditation and wished to shake off the tree but he feared that he
might overturn the nests of the birds. The people appreciated his virtue and
called him the Rsi of the Big Tree.

One day, as the rsi was enjoying the view of the riverside, he made a
pleasure trip into the dense wood, where he saw the king's daughters playing
and frolicking merrily. His sexual passion was aroused and his mind became
stained. So he went to Kusumapura to ask to marry one of the king's daughters.
On hearing of the rsi's arrival, the king received him in person and greeted
him, saying, “As Your Reverence lives outside the scope of the human world,
why do you condescend to pay me a visit?" The rs; said, “I have lived in the
woods and near the lakes for many long years. When I came out of meditation
I made a pleasure trip and saw your daughters, and a mind of contamination
has arisen in me. I have come from afar to propose marriage." On hearing
these words the king did not know what to do and said to the rsi, “Return to
your place and wait for an auspicious time." Heeding the king's order, the
rsi went back to the woods.

The king then consulted with his daughters about the matter but none of
them would consent to accept the offer. Fearing the rsi's divine power, he
became heavy-hearted and weighed down with worry. One day when the
king was at leisure, his youngest daughter calmly asked him, “Father, you
have a thousand sons and you are admired by all countries. Why do you
look so worried as if you have fear in your mind?" The king said, “The Rsi
of the Big Tree has come to propose marriage but none of your sisters con-
sented to be married to him. The rsi has divine power and could cause either
disaster or bliss. If I cannot fulfill his desire he will certainly become angry
with me and destroy our country and terminate our ancestral line, causing
insult to our forefathers. This is why I am deeply worried; this is really my
fear." The king's youngest daughter said apologetically, “It is our sin to
have caused you such deep worry. I wish to offer my humble self to lengthen

122

Fascicle V

the transmission of the royal line." The king was delighted to hear this and
ordered a carriage to take his youngest daughter to her [new] home.

Upon arriving at the rsi's hermitage the king apologized to him, saying,
“Great Rsi, you comply with supramundane sentiments and you also stoop
to care for worldly affection. I venture to offer my youngest daughter to be
at your service." The rsi, displeased at the sight of the girl, said to the king,
“You must despise me as an old man to give me such an ill-looking girl in
marriage." The king said, “I have asked all my other daughters but none of
them would obey my order. Only this youngest one consented to serve you."
The rsi was enraged and called down evil on the king's other daughters,
saying, "Let all ninety-nine (sic) girls immediately become hunchbacked!
With their disfigured shapes let them remain unmarried their whole lives
long!" The king’s messenger went back to check the efficacy of the curse
and found that the girls had actually become hunchbacked. Thereafter the
place was called the City of Hunchbacked Maidens.

The present king, named Harsavardhana (known as Xizeng, “Increment
of Happiness"), is a descendant of the vaisya caste. His family had three
kings that ruled over the country for two generations. His father was named
Prabhakaravardhana (known as Guangzeng, “Increment of Light") and his
elder brother was Rajyavardhana (known as Wangzeng, “Increment of the
Kingdom"). As Rajyavardhana was the senior prince he succeeded to the
throne and administered state affairs in a virtuous manner. At that time, King
Sasanka (known as Yue, “Moon,” in Chinese) of the country of Karnasuvarna
(known as Jiner, *Golden Ear," in Chinese) in East India often said to his
ministers, “A sagacious king in a neighboring country might be the cause of
disaster to our own country." So he lured Rajyavardhana to his country and
murdered him. Since the people lost their lord the country of [Kanyakubja]
fell into a chaos.

At that time, the minister Bhandi, a man of high position and good repute,
said to his colleagues, *Today we should make a decision about a matter of
fundamental importance for the nation. The son of the former king and
younger brother of the late monarch is a kind and benevolent man who has
filial piety toward his parents and an affectionate mind; he respects the sages
and treats his subordinates with equality. I wish to propose him for the throne.
What do you think of this? Please state your views." The ministers all admired

123

894b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the virtue of the late king's younger brother and had no objection to him.
Thus the assistant ministers and other officials exhorted him to be king,
saying, “May the prince listen to us. By accumulating merits and cultivating
virtues the former king possessed the throne and ruled over the country exten-
sively. When the throne was handed down to Rajyavardhana he should have
lived to an old age, but due to the incapability of his assistant ministers he
was killed by his enemy. This is a great shame to our country and it is also
the fault of the humble ministers. Current public opinion and folk rhymes
say that you, a sagacious prince, should succeed to the throne in order to
avenge your deceased brother and wipe out the national humiliation, as well
as glorify the deeds of your father. This is really a great exploit, so we hope
you will not decline the offer."

The prince said, “From ancient times up to the present it has always been
an important affair for one to succeed to the throne, so we should be prudent
in establishing a man in the position of a monarch. I am indeed poor in virtue
and both my father and my elder brother have departed. Although you rec-
ommend me to succeed to the throne, do you think I am a competent candidate
for the position? Despite public opinion I dare not forget my own unsubstan-
tiality and shallowness. Now, on the bank of the Ganges River there is an
image of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva that has shown many spiritual mani-
festations. I wish to go there to consult the oracle of the bodhisattva." So he
went to the image of the bodhisattva and prayed before it after having observed
the appropriate fast. Mmoved by his sincerity, the bodhisattva revealed his
true features and inquired of him, “For what do you seek with such sincerity
and earnestness?" The prince said, “My accumulated ill fortune caused the
death of my father and the murder of my elder brother was a heavy punishment
inflicted upon me. I am aware of my own lack of virtue but the people wish
to elect me to succeed to the throne to glorify the deeds of my departed father.
Being ignorant of what to do, I hope to hear your holy mandate." The bodhi-
sattva told him, “In your previous life you were a forest-dwelling bhiksu in
this wood and practiced the Way diligently. By the power of this meritorious
action you are now a prince in this life. Since the king of the country of
Karnasuvarna destroyed the buddha-dharma you should ascend the throne
to work for its revival. With a mind of great compassion and sympathy for
the people you will soon become king of all the five parts of India. If you

124

Fascicle V

wish to prolong the sovereignty of your country you should follow my advice,
and then you will be blessed by the gods and have no powerful enemy in
neighboring countries. You should not ascend the lion seat nor should you
assume the title of king." With this instruction the prince left the image and
ascended the throne with the appellation of prince and the name Siladitya
(known as Jieri, “Sun of Morality”).

Prince Siladitya said to his ministers, “For as long as my elder brother is
not avenged and neighboring countries have not pledged allegiance to me,
I will not take food with my right hand. I hope you court officials will work
together with one heart.” Then he took command of all his troops in the
whole country and trained the fighters, who consisted of five thousand ele-
phant-mounted soldiers, twenty thousand cavalrymen, and fifty thousand
infantrymen. He marched from west to east to attack those who refused to
acknowledge allegiance to him. With his elephants unreleased and his men
fully armed, for six years he subjugated all the five parts of India. He not
only expanded his territory but also enlarged his military forces, having
increased his elephant corps to sixty thousand men and his cavalrymen to
one hundred thousand strong.

For thirty years no weapon was raised for fighting and the prince admin-
istered the country in peace and practiced frugality. He sought blessedness
and performed good deeds so sedulously that he forgot about eating and
sleeping. He ordered that within the five parts of India no was allowed to eat
meat and if anyone killed any living creature the culprit would be executed
without pardon. Alongside the Ganges River he built several thousand stupas,
each over one hundred feet high. Temples were constructed in towns and
villages and at thoroughfares and crossroads in the five parts of India, where
food and drink were stored and medicines laid in to be distributed as alms
to wayfarers and the poor, without negligence. Monasteries were constructed
at sacred sites and once every five years a great congregation was convened,
in which everything in the royal treasury, except weaponry, was given away
as alms. Every year sramanas of different countries were invited to attend
a meeting for twenty-one days, during which time they were provided with
the four monastic requisites, and seats were prepared on well-decorated mats
so that they might carry out debates and arguments about the teachings of
Buddhism, to see who was superior and who inferior in learning. The good

125

894c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

ones were praised and the bad ones censured, while the ignorant were dis-
missed and the brilliant ones promoted. Those who strictly observed the dis-
ciplinary rules and were pure in morality were selected to ascend the lion
seat and the king received the Dharma from them in person. Those who were
pure in observing the disciplinary rules but lacked learning were merely
saluted to show respect to them. Those who violated the disciplinary rules
and whose immorality was obvious were banished from the country, never
to be seen or heard of again.

If the lords and their assistant ministers of the small neighboring countries
performed meritorious deeds tirelessly and sought goodness without weariness,
the king would take them by the hand to sit together with him and call them
“good friends." He never spoke to those kings who were different in character,
and if a negotiation was required to settle a matter an envoy was sent to deal
with it. Whenever he went on an inspection tour he would not stay at any
one place but would have a hut made for his lodging wherever he stopped
on the way. During the three months of the rainy season he would not travel
about because of the rain. At his temporary residence he always had delicious
food prepared every day to feed one thousand monks of different schools
and five hundred brahmans. He always divided a day into three periods: one
was spent attending to state affairs and two were devoted to performing mer-
itorious deeds and doing good work. He lived assiduously and the day was
too short for him.

At first I was invited by King Kumara to proceed from the country of
Magadha to the country of Kamarüpa. At that time King Siladitya was making
an inspection tour in the country of Kajunghira, and he sent an order to King
Kumara, saying, “It befits you to come promptly with the sramana, a guest
from a distant land, to Nalanda, to attend an assembly.” Thus I went together
with King Kumara to meet him. After exchanging greetings, King Siladitya
inquired of me, “Which country do you come from? What is the purpose of
your journey?” I said in reply, “I come from the country of Great Tang to
seek the buddha-dharma.” The king said, “Where is the country of Great
Tang located, by what route did you travel, and how far is it from here?” I
replied, “It is situated to the northeast at a distance of several myriads of Л,
and it is the country known in India as Маћастпа.”

126

Fascicle V

The king remarked, “I have heard that in the country of Mahacina the
Prince of Qin has been an intelligent man since his youth, and that now that
he has grown up he is a man of unusual bravery. The generation before his
was a time of chaos and the country disintegrated. Wars were waged one
after another, causing the people to suffer bitterly. But the Prince of Qin, who
was far-sighted from an early age, cherished the mind of great compassion
to save living beings and he restored order in his country. His moral influence
spread widely and his beneficence extended far. People of different localities
and regions admire him and serve him as his subjects. Out of gratitude for
his edification and maintenance, all the common people chant the Music of
Prince Qin s Victory in praise of him. It has been a long time since we heard
this elegant eulogy bestowed on him. Is the good repute heaped on him for
his great virtue true to the facts? Is such the actual condition of the country
of Great Tang?" I said in reply, “Yes. Cina is the name of the country [now
and] during the reign of the former king, while Great Tang is the national
title of the reigning sovereign. Before his accession to the throne he was
called the Prince of Qin, and after ascending the throne he is now entitled
the Son of Heaven. When the fortune of the previous monarch came to an
end the people lost their lord and the country fell into a chaos caused by war
and cruel harm and injuries were inflicted on the people. The Prince of Qin,
endowed with innate ambition, had the mind of compassion and by exerting
the influence of his prestige he annihilated all his enemies. Peace prevailed
over all the eight quarters and various countries presented tributes. He loves
and tends creatures of the four kinds of birth and respects the Triple Gem
with veneration. He has reduced taxation and mitigated penalties yet he has
surplus funds in the state treasury, and no one attempts to violate the law.
Concerning his moral influence and his profound edification of the people,
it is difficult for me to narrate all of this in detail." King Siladitya remarked,
*How grand it is! The people of that land have performed good deeds that
caused them to have a saintly lord."

When King Siladitya was about to return to the city of Kanyakubja to
convoke a religious assembly, hundreds of thousands of his followers gathered
on the southern bank of the Ganges, while King Kumara, followed by a mul-
titude of tens of thousands of people, was on the northern bank of the river.

127

895a

895b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Divided by the stream, the two retinue groups proceeded by land and water
simultaneously, with the two kings leading their four divisions of troops,
who sailed in boats and rode elephants, beating drums and blowing conches,
plucking strings and playing pipes. A fter traveling for ninety days they reached
the city of Kanyakubja. In a great flowery wood to the west of the Ganges
more than twenty kings of various countries, who had been informed before-
hand, came with intelligent $ramanas and brahmans as well as officials and
soldiers of their respective countries to attend the great assembly.

King [Siladitya] had previously constructed a large monastery on the west
bank of the river, with a precious terrace erected at the east to the height of
over one hundred feet, on which was placed a golden image of the Buddha
ofthe same size as the king. At the south of the terrace was erected a precious
altar, which was the place for bathing the Buddha's image. At a distance of
fourteen or fifteen /i to the northeast from here a temporary palace was built.
It was in the second month of spring, and from the first day up to the twenty-
first of the month the sramanas and brahmans were feted with delicious food.
From the temporary palace up to the monastery pavilions adorned with count-
less jewels were erected along the road on both sides, and musicians standing
motionless performed elegant music uninterruptedly. From the temporary
palace the king, with a concentrated mind, took out a dimly visible golden
image that was more than three feet tall. It was carried on a big elephant
screened by a precious curtain. King Siladitya, dressed as Indra, held a pre-
cious canopy and attended on the left side, while King Kumara, dressed as
Brahma, carried a white fly-whisk and attended on the right side. On each
side there were five hundred elephant-mounted soldiers, clad in armor and
guarding the buddha image before and behind, and on each side were one
hundred elephants that carried musicians to perform music. As he walked
King Siladitya scattered pearls and miscellaneous jewels, as well as pieces
of gold and silver and flowers as offerings to the Triple Gem. He first bathed
the image with perfumed water on the precious altar. Then the king personally
carried the image to the west terrace and offered hundreds and thousands of
jewels and gems and pieces of kauseya cloth to it. At that time there were
only about twenty sramanas participating in the function with the king, while
the kings of other countries acted as attendant guards. After the meal was
over the monks of different schools assembled to discuss the subtle theories

128

Fascicle V

and deliberate on the ultimate truth. When the sun was about to set the king
returned to the temporary palace. In this manner the golden image was taken
out every day in the same kind of procession as on the first day, until the
convocation was dispersed.

Sudenly the great terrace caught fire and the monastery and its entrance
arch were set ablaze. The king said, “I have spent all the valuables of the
national treasury to construct this monastery in the name of my late father in
order to glorify his superior deeds. Owing to my lack of virtue I could not
evoke spiritual protection but caused this calamity. Unlucky man that I am,
what use is it for me to live any longer?” Then he burned incense to worship
[the Buddha] and made a pledge, saying, “Due to my good deeds in the past
I became a king ruling over all parts of India. May the power of my blessedness
extinguish this disastrous conflagration. If no spiritual response arises I will
give up my life right now.” While saying this, he jumped down and landed
on the doorsill. The fire was immediately extinguished, just as if someone
had put it out, and the smoke vanished. The various kings, witnessing this
strange event, felt increased awe and respect for him. Without changing his
countenance and speaking in his normal tone, King Siladitya inquired of the
various kings, “What would you think if this disaster had actually consumed
all that I had achieved?" The kings prostrated themselves on the ground, weep-
ing piteously, and said, “We expected that this superior site achieved by you
would be handed down to posterity. If it had been completely consumed
nothing else would have been memorable. Only the heretics would have felt
delighted and rejoiced over the disaster." The king said, “In view of this acci-
dent, what the Tathagata has taught is true. The heretical and heterodox schools
persist in the view of permanence but our great teacher alone inculcated the
theory of impermanence. I have given in alms what I could afford, to my
mind's satisfaction. But all of this is transient and destructible and it proves
the truth as taught by the Tathagata. [The accident] is a great beneficence and
there is no reason to be deeply regretful about it."

He the followed the various kings and went up to the great stupa in the
east to have a view of the scenery. When he was descending the steps after
having viewed the environs, a stranger suddenly appeared and attempted to
attack him with a knife. The king, cornered by the assailant, retreated to a
higher step and, bending down backward he got ahold of the man and handed

129

895c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

him over to his officials. At that time the officials were so alarmed with fright
that they failed to come to the king's rescue. The various kings demanded
that the man be put to death but King Silàditya, without any resentment,
ordered that he not be killed and personally interrogated him, asking, “What
wrong did I do to you that you attempted to commit such a violent atrocity?"
The man said in reply, “Your Majesty's virtuous benevolence is impartial
and all people, both in your country and abroad, are the recipients of your
beneficence. I am a wild idiot who does not know what is of great importance.
At the instigation in one word from the heretics I acted as an assassin and
attempted to murder you." The king said, “Why did the heretics cherish such
an evil intention?" In reply, the man said, “Your Majesty assembled [the sra-
manas] of different countries, emptied the treasury for their maintenance,
and cast images of the Buddha, while the heretics summoned from distant
places were not properly cared for. Thus they felt humiliated and ordered
me, a wild idiot, to commit this malicious act in a deceitful way." Through
further investigation into the heretical adherents it was found that five hundred
brahmans and other people of high talent who were assembled under the
king's order felt envious of the hospitality and veneration enjoyed by the
sramanas and they had shot a burning arrow to set fire to the precious terrace
in the hope of murdering the great king amid the turmoil of people trying to
put out the fire. As [the plot had not succeeded] they hired this man to carry
out the assassination at a strategic point. At that time the various kings and
ministers proposed to put the heretics to death but the king punished only
the chief criminals, while the rest of the party were pardoned and the five
hundred brahmans were banished from the domain of India. Afterward the
king returned to his capital city.

The stupa at the northwest of the city was constructed by King Asoka at
the site where the Tathagata had once spoken on various wonderful doctrines
for seven days. Beside it were places where the four past buddhas used to
sit and walk up and down. There is also a small stupa containing hair and
nail relics of the Tathagata. The stupa built at the place where the Tathagata
preached the Dharma faces the Ganges River on the south. There are three
monasteries built in one enclosure, with separate entrances. The images of
the Buddha are magnificent and beautiful and the monks are quiet and austere.
There are several thousand families of monastic servitors. In a precious casket

130

Fascicle V

in the temple there is a tooth relic of the Buddha, about one and a half inches
long, with a special luster that changes color between morning and evening.
Hundreds and thousands of people, both officials and commoners, come
every day from far and near to see it and pay homage to it. Its guardians,
who did not like the din and hubbub caused by the crowd, started demanding
a heavy entrance fee from the worshipers and announced far and near that
those who wished to see the Buddha's tooth relic would have to pay a large
amount of money. Worshipers were displeased with these monks, thinking
that they delighted in collecting money in the form of the entrance fee. On
each fast day the relic was exposed on a high cushion and hundreds and thou-
sands of people burned incense and scattered flowers. No matter how many
flowers were piled up high [before it], the relic casket was never covered
over. At each side and in front of the monasteries there is a temple more than
one hundred feet high built with brick on stone bases. The buddha images
in them, cast either in gold and silver or brass, were adorned with various
kinds of gems. In front of each of the two temples there is a small monastery.

Not far to the southeast of the monasteries there is a large temple more
than two hundred feet high built out of brick on stone bases, housing a standing
statue of the Buddha over thirty feet tall, which was cast in brass and adorned
with various kinds of gems. On the stone walls of the temple there are carvings
depicting in full detail the acts of the Tathagata when he was practicing the
way of a bodhisattva. Not far to the south of the stone temple is a temple of
Surya (the sun god), and not far further to the south there is another temple
dedicated to Mahesvara (Siva), both of which were built with bluestone and
fully carved with sculptures. They are the same size as the Buddhist temple
and each has one thousand families to serve as scavengers to keep the place
clean. Music from drums and voices is performed day and night without cease.

At a distance of six or seven /i to the southeast of the great city there is a
stupa over two hundred feet high built by King Asoka at the site where the
Tathagata once preached on the doctrine that the physical body is imperma-
nent, sorrowful, empty, and impure. Beside it is a site where the four past
buddhas used to sit and walk up and down. There is also a small stupa con-
taining hair and nail relics of the Tathagata. Anyone who suffers from an
illness can surely be cured and benefited if he or she circumambulates the
stupa with a pious mind.

131

896a

896b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Going southeast from the great city for more than one hundred /i, I reached
the city of Navadevakula, which is situated on the eastern bank of the Ganges
River and is over twenty /i in circuit, with and pure ponds surrounded by
flowery woods that are reflected in the water. To the northwest of the city of
Navadevakula at the east of the Ganges is a deva temple consisting of storied
pavilions and multitiered terraces, which were exquisitely constructed. Five
li to the east of the city there are three monasteries built in one enclosure but
with separate gates. There are over five hundred monks, all of whom study
the teachings of the Hinayana Sarvastivada school. More than two hundred
paces in front of the monasteries there is a stupa built by King Asoka. Although
the foundations have collapsed the structure is still more than one hundred
feet high. It was built at the site where the Tathagata preached the Dharma
for seven days. In the monasteries there is a piece of a Sarira (relic) that emits
a light from time to time. Beside them are places where the four past buddhas
used to sit and walk up and down. Three or four /i to the north of the monas-
teries and on the bank of the Ganges is a stupa more than two hundred feet
high that was built by King Asoka at the site where the Tathagata preached
the Dharma for seven days. Five hundred hungry ghosts then came to the
Buddha and became awakened after hearing the Dharma; having been released
from the realm of hungry ghosts they were reborn in the heavens.

Beside the stupa at the place where the Buddha preached the Dharma is
a site where the four past buddhas used to sit and walk up and down. Beside
it is a stupa containing the Tathagata’s hair and nail relics.

From here going to the southeast for over six hundred Ji, I crossed the Ganges
to the south and reached the country of Ayodhya (in the domain of Central
India). The country of Ayodhya is more than five thousand /i in circuit and
its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. This country abounds in cereal
crops and has plenty of flowers and fruit. The climate is mild and the people
are benign by custom. They have an inclination for performing meritorious
deeds and are diligent in learning the arts and crafts. There are more than
one hundred monasteries with over three thousand monks, who study both
Mahayana and Hinayana doctrines. There are ten deva temples with a few
heretics. In the great city there is an old monastery that was the place where
Vasubandhu Bodhisattva (known as Shigin in Chinese, and formerly called

132

Fascicle V

Poshubandu, wrongly translated as “Heavenly Kinsman’) spent several
decades composing various treatises on both Mahayana and Hinayana doc-
trines. The old foundations beside it are the ruins of a hall in which
Vasubandhu Bodhisattva expounded Buddhist theories and spoke on the
Dharma for the kings of different countries, as well as for prominent sramanas
and brahmans coming from the four quarters.

Four or five /i to the north of the city, in a great monastery on the bank of
the Ganges is a stupa over two hundred feet high built by King Asoka, marking
the place where the Tathagata spoke on the various wonderful doctrines to
heavenly and human beings for three months. The stupa beside it marks a
place where the four past buddhas used to sit and walk up and down. Four
or five /i to the west of the monastery is a stupa containing the Tathagata’s
hair and nail relics. To the north of the stupa containing hair and nail relics
are the ruins of a monastery in which the sastra master Srilabdha (known as
Shengshou, “Received in Victory," in Chinese) of yore composed the Й-
bhasa-sastra of the Sautrantika school.

In a great mango grove five or six /i to the southwest of the city there is an
old monastery where Asanga Bodhisattva (known as Wushuo, “No Attachment,"
in Chinese) received instructions and guided the common people. At night he
ascended to the place of Maitreya Bodhisattva in [Tusita] Heaven to learn the
Yogacarabhumi-sastra, the Mahayanasutralamkara-sastra, the Madhyanta-
vibhaga-sastra, [and other texts]; in the daytime he lectured on the marvelous
principles to a large audience. More than one hundred paces to the northwest
of the mango grove is a stupa containing hair and nail relics of the Tathagata.
The old foundations beside it mark the place where Vasubandhu Bodhisattva
descended from Tusita Heaven to see Asanga Bodhisattva.

Asanga Bodhisattva, a native of the country of Gandhara, was a man of
virtue born one thousand years after the demise of the Buddha and realized
the Way after receiving edification. He became a monk of the Mahisasaka
school to learn its teachings, but soon afterward he turned his mind toward
the Mahayana doctrines. His younger brother, Vasubandhu Bodhisattva,
became a monk of the Sarvastivada school to receive an education. He was
a man of wide learning with a retentive memory, and he possessed compre-
hensive knowledge and probed into its essence. Asanga’s disciple Buddhasimha

133

896c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

(known as Shizijue, “Buddha Lion") was a monk who observed the disci-
plinary rules immaculately and was well known for his high talents. These
two or three sagely persons often said among themselves that since the
purpose of their spiritual cultivation was to see Maitreya in person [in their
next rebirth], whoever among them died first and fulfilled his long-cherished
wish should come back to inform the others where he had been reborn.
Buddhasimha died first but he did not come back to report his whereabouts
for three years. Later Vasubandhu passed away but he too did not report back
after six months. The heretics sneered at them, deeming that Vasubandhu
Bodhisattva and Buddhasimha had been reborn in an evil state and so they
could not show any spiritual response.

Asanga Bodhisattva was instructing his disciples in the methods of prac-
ticing meditation one night when the lamplight suddenly faded out and a
great brightness appeared in the sky. A heavenly being descended from the
air and entered the courtyard to worship Asanga, who asked him, “Why do
you come so late? What is your name now?" [The heavenly being] said in
reply, “After my death here I repaired to Tusita Heaven, where I was born
from a lotus flower in the inner department of the heaven. When the lotus
flower opened Maitreya said to me with praise, “Welcome, Guanghui (“Vast
Wisdom")! Welcome, Guanghui!’ As soon as I had just finished circumam-
bulating him once, I descended to report this to you." Asanga Bodhisattva
asked, “Where is Buddhasimha now?" The reply was, “When I was circum-
ambulating [Maitreya] I saw Buddhasimha in the outer department indulging
himself in sensual pleasures, and he was so busy that he had scarcely any
time to look at me, nmuch less come down to report to you!” Asanga Bodhi-
sattva said, "Let it be so. Now what does Maitreya look like? What Dharma
does he preach?" The reply was, “His features are so beautiful that they are
beyond description. He preached on the wonderful Dharma, of which the
purports were the same as you have explained here. The bodhisattva has a
melodious voice, so fluent and elegant that those who hear it forget about
fatigue and his students never feel bored."

More than forty /i to the northwest of the old foundations of Asanga's lec-
ture hall I came to an old monastery with the Ganges River at its north, where
there is a brick stupa over one hundred feet high. This was the place where
Vasubandhu Bodhisattva began to cherish a mind to accept the Mahayana

134

Fascicle V

teachings. When he was traveling here from North India Asanga Bodhisattva
sent a disciple to greet him at the midway point, and it was at this monastery
where they met each other. Asanga's disciple stayed outside the house and
at night he recited the Dasabhümi-sütra. Upon hearing the recitation
Vasubandhu became awakened and repented that he had not before heard
the very profound and wonderful Dharma. Thinking that the source of the
fault of slander is the tongue, he intended to cut off [his own tongue]. As he
grasped a scraping knife to slice off his tongue he saw Asanga appearing
before him, who told him, “The system of Mahayana teachings is the ultimate
truth, praised by all the buddhas and regarded as the orthodox school by var-
1ous saints. I intended to admonish you but now you have become awakened
by yourself. Nothing is better than a timely awakening. According to the
teachings of the buddhas, cutting off one's tongue is not a way of repentance.
In bygone days you insulted the Mahayana teachings with your tongue, so
it would be better for you to amend your ways by praising the Mahayana
teachings, also with your tongue. What would be the benefit of becoming
mute?" After having said this, [the illusion] disappeared. Following this
advice, Vasubandhu did not cut off his tongue and went to Asanga to study
the Mahayana teachings with him. He engaged in careful learning with pro-
found speculation and wrote more than a hundred treatises on Mahayana
theories, all of which are very popular works.

From here going to the east for more than three hundred Ji, I crossed the
Ganges to the north and reached the country of Ayamukha (in the domain of
Central India). The country of Ayamukha is two thousand four hundred or
five hundred /i in circuit. The capital city borders on the Ganges River and
is more than twenty /i in circuit. The climate and local products of this country
are the same as in the country of Ayodhya. The people are honest and their
custom is plain and simple. They are diligent in learning and like to perform
meritorious deeds. There are five monasteries with over one thousand monks
who study the Hinayana teachings of the Sammitiya school. There are more
than ten deva temples, where heretics live together.

Not far away to the southwest of the city there is a stupa at the bank of
the Ganges. Built by King Asoka, it is two hundred feet high, marking the
place where in olden times the Tathagata preached the Dharma for three

135

897a

897b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

months. Beside it there is a place where the four past buddhas used to sit and
walk up and down, and there is also a stupa containing the Tathagata's hair
and nail relics. Over two hundred monks live in the monastery beside the
stupa. The Buddha's image is well adorned and has an austere appearance,
as if he were still alive. The terraces and pavilions of the monastery are grand
and beautifully built in a special style, rising high up into the air. This was
the place where in olden times the sastra master Buddhadasa (known as
Jueshi, “Buddha Servant") composed the Mahavibhasa-sastra of the Sarvas-
tivada school.

From here going to the southeast for more than seven hundred /; I crossed
the Ganges to the south and reached the country of Prayaga, north of the
Jumna River (in the domain of Central India). The country of Prayaga is
more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, situated at the
confluence of the two rivers, 1s over twenty /i in circuit. It abounds in cereal
crops and fruit trees are luxuriant. The climate is temperate and the people
are kind and agreeable by custom. They take pleasure in learning arts and
crafts and believe in heretical religions. There are two monasteries with few
monks, all of whom study Hinayana teachings. Deva temples amount to sev-
eral hundreds and they have a large number of heretics.

In the wood of campaka flowers to the south of the great city is a stupa
built by King A$oka, which is still more than one hundred feet high though
the foundations have collapsed. Formerly the Tathagata subdued heretics at
this place. Beside it is a stupa containing hair and nail relics and there is also
a site where he used to walk up and down. Beside the stupa of hair and nail
relics is an old monastery where Deva (known as Tian, *God") Bodhisattva
composed the Satasastra-vaipulya to frustrate Hinayana adherents and conquer
heretics.

When Deva Bodhisattva first came to this monastery from South India
there was in the city a heretical brahman who was learned in debate and elo-
quent in discussion without impediment. He insisted on the identification of
names and facts and he would refute his opponents to their wits’ end. Knowing
that Deva was widely learned in profound doctrines and wishing to break
his spirit, the brahman started a conversation by inquiring his name, saying,
“What is your name?" Deva said, “Deva.” The heretic said, “Who is Deva?"

136

Fascicle V

Deva said, “I am." The heretic said, “Who is I?" Deva said, “A dog." The
heretic said, “Who is the dog?" Deva said, “You.” The heretic said, “Who
are you?" Deva said, “Deva.” The heretic said, “Who is Deva?" [Deva said,]
“I am.” The heretic said, “Who is I?" Deva said, “A dog.” The heretic said,
“Who is the dog?” Deva said, “You.” The heretic said, “Who are you?” Deva
said, “Deva.” In this manner they argued in a circle and the heretic began to
understand [that Deva was irrefutable]. Since then he deeply respected Deva’s
moralizing edification.

In the city there is a deva temple consisting of many lofty and beautifully
decorated buildings, which showed spiritual signs in various ways. According
to the records of the temple it is the best place for people to plant meritorious
seeds. The merit of donating one coin at this temple is greater than that of
giving one thousand pieces of gold in alms at other places, and [it is believed
that] someone who commits suicide and dies in this temple will enjoy eternal
bliss in the heavens. In front of the temple is a big tree with luxuriant branches
and leaves that cast dark shadows on the ground. A man-eating ghost made
his abode in the tree and skeletons were scattered about to the left and right
sides. People coming to this temple are liable to give up their lives, as they
are simultaneously frightened by the horrible tradition and allured by the evil
spirits. This absurd practice has been carried out without alteration from
ancient times up to the present.

Recently there was a young man of the brahman caste who was intelligent
and magnanimous in character and endowed with brilliant wisdom and high
talent. He came to the temple and said to the people, “Crooked customs and
corrupt desires are hard to mend by dissuasion and guidance. I must practice
the same in order to correct them.” He climbed up into the tree and said to
his friends gathered below, “I am going to die to testify to the truth of what
is deceitful. Heavenly maidens and musicians are in the air to greet me. I
shall forsake this humble body of mine at the best place for doing so.” When
he was about to throw himself down to end his life his relatives and friends
tried to dissuade him from doing so, but he would not change his mind. They
spread their garments on the ground below the tree and saved his life when
he dropped to the ground. After a long while he came to his senses and said,
“T only saw some evil spirits in the air beckoning to me and there was nothing
of heavenly bliss.”

137

897c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

To the east of the great city and at the junction of the two rivers there is
a dune more than ten /i wide, dry and covered with fine sand. From ancient
times up to now various kings and people of great wealth have always come
here whenever they wished to give alms. This place is called the Grand Place
of Almsgiving, where gifts are distributed without counting.

At present, King Siladitya follows the example of his predecessors in
practicing almsgiving. He spends all the wealth he has accumulated in five
years on almsgiving in a single day and piles up precious things at the [Grand]
Place of Almsgiving. On the first day he installed a large image of the Buddha
adorned with various gems, to which he offered the best rare jewels. Next
he gave offerings to the resident monks, then to those who were present in
the assembly, then to the highly talented, learned, erudite, and versatile schol-
ars, then to the heretical students, hermits, and recluses, and finally to the
kinless and the poor. Various kinds of precious objects and the best delicious
food were distributed to them all in a perfect manner according to their grades
and ranks. When the treasury was emptied and the clothing and other objects
were exhausted, [the king's] lustrous pearl in his topknot and the necklace
on his body were given away one after the other, without the least reluctance.
When King Siladitya had completed the almsgiving he said, “How happy I
am! I have placed all I had in the adamantine and indestructible storehouse!"
After that the lords and kings of various countries offered precious jewels
and garments to him, and in less than ten days his treasury was replenished.

Several hundred people drown themselves every day at the confluence of
the two rivers to the east of the Grand Place of Almsgiving. It is popular cus-
tom as the people believe that in order to be reborn in the heavens they should
starve [themselves] and drown in the river at this spot. The people bathe in
midstream to wash away their sins and defilements. Thus people from different
countries come to this place from distant regions to starve for seven days
and die. Even mountain apes and wild monkeys come in groups to the river-
side. Some of them take a bath and go back, while others starve themselves
to death. When King Silàditya was performing the great almsgiving a monkey
stayed alone under a tree at the riverside, without going anywhere, and fasted.
After a few days it died of starvation. Some heretical ascetics plant long
poles in the river; at dawn they climb up the poles and stand with one hand
holding the top of the pole and one foot on a peg, while stretching out the

138

Fascicle V

other hand and foot into the air. Craning their necks, with eyes wide open,
they gaze at the sun moving to the right and do not come down until dusk.
There are several scores of such ascetics, who hope to escape the wheel of
rebirth by practicing such rigorous austerities. Some of them have never
relaxed their self-mortification for several decades.

From here I entered a great forest in the southwest, where ferocious animals
and wild elephants in groups attack wayfarers. Unless accompanied by a large
number of companions it is difficult for a traveler to cross this region alone.

After going for more than five hundred /;, I came to the country of Kausambt
(formerly known as Jushanmi erroneously, in the domain of Central India).
The country of Kausambt is over six thousand /; in circuit and its capital city
is more than thirty /i in circuit. The land is fertile and good for agricultural pro-
duction. The country abounds in nonglutinous rice and yields plenty of sugar-
cane. The climate is hot and the people are bold and furious by custom. They
love to learn classical texts and arts and advocate the performance of good and
meritorious deeds. There are about ten monasteries lying in a dilapidated and
deserted condition, with more than three hundred monks who study the Hinayana
teachings. There are over fifty deva temples with numerous heretics.

In the old palace in the city there is a great temple, more than sixty feet
in height, that houses an image of the Buddha carved in sandalwood, with a
stone canopy suspended over it. It was made by King Udayana (known as
Chuai, “Release from Passion,” formerly mistranslated as King Youtian).
The image often shows spiritual signs and emits a divine light from time to
time. The kings of various countries, relying on their might, wanted to take
it but when they tried to lift it up they could not move it, even though a large
number of people were employed to do so. Then they had pictures of the
image produced for worship and each claimed that his picture was the most
true to life. Speaking of the image’s origin, it is said that when the Tathagata,
after having realized full enlightenment, ascended to Trayastrimsa Heaven
to preach the Dharma to his mother, the king was eager to see him and wished
to make a likeness of him. He requested Venerable Maudgalyayana to use
his supernatural power to transport an artisan to the heavenly palace to observe
the Buddha’s fine features, and the artisan carved an image of him in san-
dalwood. When the Tathagata returned to earth from heaven, the sandalwood

139

898a

898b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

image stood up to greet the World-honored One, who said to it sympathetically,
“Are you tired from teaching the people? You are what we hope will enlighten
the people in the last period of the buddha-dharma."

More than a hundred paces to the east of the temple are places where the
four past buddhas used to sit and walk up and down. A well and bathhouse
used by the Tathagata are not far away. The well still supplies water but the
bathhouse has fallen into ruins. At the southeast corner inside the city are
the ruins of the old residence of Elder Ghosila (formerly transcribed as
Jushiluo incorrectly), where there is a Buddhist temple and a stupa containing
[the Buddha's] hair and nail relics. Another old foundation is that of the
Buddha's bathhouse.

Not far to the southeast of the city is an old monastery built in the garden
of Elder Ghosila in which is a stupa more than two hundred feet high built
by King Asoka. The Tathagata stayed here preaching the Dharma for several
years. Beside it are sites where the four past buddhas used to sit and walk up
and down. There are also stupas containing the Tathagata's hair and nail relics.
On the storied pavilion to the southeast of the monastery is an old brick
chamber in which Vasubandhu Bodhisattva stayed and composed the Vijnapti-
matratasiddhi-sastra to refute Hinayana teachings and defeat heretics. In a
mango grove to the east of the monastery is the old foundation of a house in
which Asanga Bodhisattva composed the Prakaranaryavaca-sastra.

Eight or nine /i to the southwest of the city is the cave of a venomous dragon.
Formerly the Tathagata subdued this dragon and left his own shadow in the
cave. Although this is recorded in books nothing more of it can be seen now.
Beside the cave is a stupa more than two hundred feet high built by King Asoka.
At its side are sites where the Tathagata used to sit and walk up and down and
a stupa containing his hair and nail relics. Those who suffer from illness come
here to pray for health and most of them are cured. As this is be the country
where Sakyamuni’s Dharma will finally come to an end, all the people, from
kings down to commoners, naturally feel sad when they come to this land and
shed tears before returning home with sighs of regret.

Going for more than seven hundred /i through a great forest to the northeast
of the dragon’s cave, I crossed the Ganges to the north and reached the city
of Kasapura. It is over ten /i in circuit and the inhabitants are rich and happy.
Beside it there are the ruins of a monastery where Dharmapala Bodhisattva

140

Fascicle V

subdued heretics in the old days. A previous king of this country who supported
heterodox views intended to destroy the buddha-dharma in order to uphold
the heretics. He invited from among them a sastra master, who was intelligent,
had great talent, and understood subtle theories, to compose a fallacious book
of thirty-two thousand words in one thousand stanzas to denounce the buddha-
dharma and make his own sect the orthodox one. The king then summoned
the monks to hold a debate, on the condition that if the heretical sastra master
won the contest the buddha-dharma would be destroyed, and if the monks
were undefeated then the sastra master would cut off his tongue.

At that time the monks, fearing that they might be defeated, assembled
to discuss the matter, saying, “The Sun of Wisdom has sunk and the Bridge
of the Dharma is about to be destroyed. How can we compete with the heretics
who have the king standing by their side? Under these circumstances what
should we do?" The assembly remained silent and no one ventured to raise
a proposal. Dharmapala Bodhisattva, then a young man who was eloquent,
intelligent, and learned, and who enjoyed a widespread reputation, declared
to the assembly, “Although I am an ignorant person I venture to make a brief
statement. It would truly befit you to send me promptly to answer the king's
order. If I win the debate it will be due to spiritual protection, and if I fail
my youthfulness can be blamed. In this way we can give an explanation in
either case and no censure will be incurred upon the Dharma or the community
of monks." The whole assembly consented to his proposal and, according
to his suggestion, Dharmapala was sent to answer the king’s order.

He mounted the seat of discussion and the heretical [sastra master] recited
his book in a rhythmic voice, brought out all the essentials of his work, and
waited for a refutation. Dharmapala listened to his recitation and said with
a smile, *I have won. Shall I recite your book backward, or shall I recite it
with the phrases transposed in order?" The heretic was dismayed and said,
* You should not be self-important. One who can fully understand the meanings
of my book is the winner. First recite it in its proper sequence and then give
an explanation of the text." Dharmapala then imitated the heretic's rhythmic
voice, recited the text, and expounded the meanings of its contents, with no
fault either in phraseology or in principles, nor was there any deviation in
the intonation. After hearing this, the heretic made ready to cut off his tongue.
Dharmapala said to him, “Cutting off your tongue is not a way to amend

141

898c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

yourself. Real repentance is to correct your [wrongly] grasped opinions."
He preached the Dharma to the heretic, who began to have faith in it and
understand its meanings. The king gave up the erroneous way and embraced
the Dharma in adoration.

Beside the place where Dharmapala subdued the heretic is a stupa built
by King Asoka. Though the foundations have collapsed it is still more than
two hundred feet high. Formerly the Tathagata preached the Dharma for six
months at this place. Beside it is a place where [he] walked up and down and
a stupa containing his hair and nail relics.

Going northward from here for one hundred seventy or eighty /i, I reached
the country of Visaka (in the domain of Central India). The country of Visaka
is more than four thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is sixteen /i in
circuit. It abounds in cereal crops and yields plenty of flowers and fruit. The
climate is moderate and the people are sincere and honest by custom. They
are fond of learning without getting tired and they never regress in performing
good deeds. There are more than twenty monasteries with over three thousand
monks, all of whom study the teachings of the Sammittya sect of the Hinayana
school. There are over fifty deva temples with a great many heretics.

To the south of the city there is a large monastery on the left side of the
road in which the arhat Deva$arman composed the Vijnanakaya-sastra to
advocate the theory of the non-self in the human body, while the arhat Gopa
wrote the Treatise on the Essential Truth of the Holy Teachings (Sheng jiao
yao shi lun) to maintain the doctrine of the existence of the self in the human
body. These incompatible views about the Dharma caused much controversy.
It was also in this monastery that Dharmapala Bodhisattva subdued one hun-
dred Hinayana sastra masters in seven days. Beside the monastery is a stupa
more than two hundred feet high built by King Asoka. Formerly the Tathagata
preached the Dharma for six years at this place to edify the people. There is
a marvelous tree, about six or seven feet tall, which neither sprouts leaves
in springtime nor withers in autumn. Formerly the Tathagata cast down a
tooth twig he had used for cleaning his teeth, which took root and grew into
the luxuriant tree that it there now. People holding heterodox views and
heretics have tried to cut the tree down but it grows back as before. Not far
away from the tree are places where the four past buddhas used to sit and

142

Fascicle V

walk up and down, and there is also a stupa containing the Tathagata's hair
and nail relics. The foundations of the holy sites are connected with one
another in a wood with ponds, in which the shapes of the trees are reflected.

Going from here to the northeast for over five hundred /; I reached the country
of Sravasti (formerly known as Shewei erroneously, in the domain of Central
India).
End of Fascicle V of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

143

Fascicle VI

Four Countries, from Sràavasti
to Kusinagara

1. The Country of Sravasti

2. The Country of Kapilavastu
3. The Country of Rama[grama]
4. The Country of Kusinagara

The country of Śrāvastī is over six thousand / in circuit. Its capital city is in
desolation and there is nothing to mark its boundaries. The old foundations
of the palace city are more than twenty /i in circuit. Although mostly in ruins
it is still inhabited. It abounds in cereal crops and the climate is temperate.
The people are sincere and honest by custom, diligent in study, and like to
perform meritorious deeds. There are several hundred monasteries, most of
which are dilapidated, with few monks who are followers of the Sammitiya
school. Deva temples amount to a hundred and they have many heretics.

This was the capital of the country ruled by King Prasenajit (known as
Shengjun, “Victorious Army,” formerly called Bosini erroneously in abbre-
viation) when the Tathagata was living in the world. The old foundations in
the palace city are the remnant bases of King Prasenajit's palace. Not far to
the east is another old foundation, on which a small stupa has been built to
mark the site of the Great Dharma Hall constructed by King Prasenajit for
the Tathagata in olden times. Not far from the Dharma Hall a stupa was built
on the old foundations of the temple of the Buddha’s maternal aunt, Prajapati
(known as Shengzhu, “Protectress of Creatures," formerly mistranscribed as
Boshe-boti) Bhiksunt, constructed for her by King Prasenajit. Next to the
east, a stupa marks the site ofthe old residence of Sudatta (known as Shanshi,
“Good Almsgiver,” formerly mistranscribed as Xuda).

Beside the residence of Sudatta is a great stupa built at the spot where
Angulimala (known as Zhiman, “Chaplet of Finger Bones," formerly mis-
transcribed as Yangjuemoluo) gave up his evil ways. Angulimala was a wicked

145

899a

899b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

man of Sravasti who harmed living beings and committed atrocities in the
city and throughout the country. He murdered people in order to collect their
finger bones to make a mala. Just as he was about to kill his mother to get
her finger bone to complete the number of bones required for the mala, the
World-honored One, with a mind of compassion, was making a tour of edi-
fication. Seeing the World-honored One from a distance, Angulimala felt
glad and thought, *I am sure to be reborn in the heavens, as my late teacher
taught me that anyone who hurts the Buddha and kills his own mother will
be reborn in Brahma Heaven." He said to his mother, “Old lady, you may
stay here for a while. I will go kill that great sramana first.” Saying this, he
wielded a sword and went to meet the World-honored One. As the Tathagata
slowly retreated the wicked Angulimala could not catch up with him, even
though he walked very fast. The World-honored One said to him, *Why do
you hold on Vo your ignoble ideas? You have abandoned the root of goodness
and aroused the source of wickedness." On hearing this admonition
Angulimala became aware that his behavior was wrong. He took refuge [in
the Buddha] and sought to learn the Dharma and, as he studied diligently,
he attained arhatship.

Five or six /i to the south of the city is Jetavana (known as Shenglin, “Vic-
tor's Wood,” formerly mistranscribed as Qituo), the garden of Anathapindika,
where King Prasenajit's minister Sudatta constructed a temple for the Buddha.
In the old days it was a monastery but now it lies in ruins. There are two
stone pillars over seventy feet high, one at each side of the east gate. On top
of the left pillar a wheel sign is carved, and a figure of a bull is engraved on
top of the right pillar. Both pillars were erected by King Asoka. The buildings
are dilapidated and only the remains of the old foundations still stand, with
the exception of a brick chamber that stands alone. In this chamber there is
an image of the Buddha. After the Tathagata preached the Dharma for his
mother in Trayastrimsa Heaven, King Prasenajit made this image, after
hearing that King Udayana had carved a sandalwood image of the Buddha.

Elder Sudatta was a kind and intelligent man who knew how to accumulate
wealth and how to spend money to help the poor and needy and provide alms
to kinless and aged people. In praise of his virtue the people of his time called
him Anathapindika (“Giver of Alms to the Poor and Helpless”). Hearing
about the Buddha’s virtues, he cherished a deep adoration for him and wished

146

Fascicle VI

to build a temple to which to invite the Buddha. The World-honored One
sent Sariputra to go [with Sudatta] to survey the location, and they found
that only Prince Jeta's garden was a suitably high and dry site. They went to
see the prince and told him their intention. The prince said in jest, “I will sell
my garden for as many pieces of gold as it takes to completely cover the
ground!"

On hearing this, Sudatta was exhilarated and took gold coins from his
treasury to pave the ground of the garden, as Prince Jeta had suggested. When
only a small portion of the land remained uncovered the prince begged to
retain it for himself, saying, “The Buddha is really like a plot of good land
and I too should sow good seeds in it." He built a temple on the remaining
portion of the ground. The World-honored One went there and said to Ananda,
* As the ground of the garden has been purchased by Sudatta and the trees
have been given by Prince Jeta, these two have the same purpose in mind
and their merits should be equally esteemed. Henceforward this place should
be called the Garden of Jetavana-Anathapindika."

To the northeast of the Garden of Anathapindika is a stupa at the place
where the Tathagata once bathed a sick bhiksu. Once, when the Tathagata
was living in the world, there was a sick bhiksu, suffering from pain, who
lived alone in solitude. Seeing him, the World-honored One asked, “What
is your malady and why are you living alone?" The bhiksu said in reply, “I
am indolent by nature and cannot endure medical treatment. That is why I
am sick and without anyone to attend me." With a mind of compassion the
Tathagata said to him, “Good man, now I am here to attend you." Saying
this, he stroked the sick bhiksu with his hand, completely curing him, and
then helped then bhiksu to go out through the door. The Buddha then changed
the bhiksu's bedding, bathed him, and dressed him in new clothes. The Buddha
said to him, “You should always be diligent and exert yourself.” Hearing this
instruction, the bhiksu felt grateful and was happy in mind and comfortable
in body.

To the northwest of the Garden of Anathapindika is a small stupa at the
place where Maudgalyayana could not lift the belt of Sariputra’s robe with
his supernatural powers. The Buddha was once at Anavatapta Lake with a
congregation of human and heavenly beings. Only Sariputra was absent from
the meeting and the Buddha asked Maudgalyayana to summon him to the

147

899c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

congregation. When Maudgalyayana went by the Buddha's order to the place
of Sariputra, the latter was mending his clerical robe. Maudgalyayana said
to him, “The World-honored One is now at Anavatapta Lake and has ordered
me to summon you." Sariputra said, “Wait a moment. When I have finished
mending my robe I will go with you." Maudgalyayana said, “If you do not
go with me immediately I will exercise my supernatural powers and carry
you and your rock chamber to the congregation!" Sariputra then untied his
belt and put it on the ground, saying, “If you can pick up my belt I will go
with you immediately." Maudgalyayana exercised his great supernatural
powers but he could not pick the belt up, even though his strength caused
an earthquake. Then he returned to the Buddha through the air by the power
of his magic feet and found that Sariputra was already seated in the congre-
gation. Maudgalyayana remarked with a sigh, “Now I have realized that the
power of divine capabilities is inferior to that of transcendental wisdom."

Not far from the stupa of belt-lifting is a well from which water was drawn
for the Tathagata's use when he was living in the world. Beside it is another
stupa built by King A$oka, in which are preserved the relics of the Tathagata.
Indicative emblems were raised and stupas constructed at the sites where he
walked up and down and preached the Dharma. All of these places are pro-
tected by deities, who occasionally show spiritual manifestations in the form
of celestial music or divine fragrance. Other auspicious signs of great blessed-
ness are difficult for me to relate in detail.

Not far behind the monastery is the place where some young brahmanical
students killed a prostitute in order to slander the Buddha. The Tathagata
was in possession of the ten powers as well as fearlessness and omniscient
wisdom, and he was honored by human and heavenly beings and respected
by saints and sages. The heretics discussed the matter together, saying, ^We
should contrive a devious scheme to slander and publicly insult him." Then
they hired a prostitute to pretend to be a hearer of the Dharma. After she had
became known as such to all, the heretics killed her in secret, buried the
corpse beside a tree, and appealed to the king for redress. The king ordered
an investigation and discovered the corpse in Jetavana Garden. The heretics
exclaimed, “The great sramana Gautama often preached disciplinary rules
and chastity. But now he has had illicit intercourse with this woman and
killed her in order to shut her up. He has violated the rules against unchastity

148

Fascicle VI

and killing. What disciplinary rules and austerities has he practiced?" At that
moment heavenly beings in the air cried out, “The wicked heretics are merely
making up a slander!”

More than a hundred paces to the east of the monastery there is a large
and deep pit, which was the place where Devadatta, who intended to poison
the Buddha, fell into hell alive. Devadatta (known as Tianshou, “Given by
Heaven") was the son of King Dronodana. Through twelve years' study with
zealous perseverance he mastered all the eighty thousand Dharma pifakas.
Afterward he sought to learn supernatural powers for the sake of gaining
material advantage and he associated with evil friends, to whom he said in
a discussion, “I have as many as thirty of the physical marks of a great person,
almost as many as the Buddha [who had thirty-two], and I also have a great
following surrounding me. What is the difference between me and the Tatha-
gata?" With this thought in mind, he caused a schism in the community of
monks. By the Buddha's order and with the aid of his spiritual power, Sariputra
and Maudgalyayana preached the Dharma and exhorted the monks who had
gone astray to return to the harmonious community of monks. But Devadatta
did not relinquish his evil mind and put poison on his fingernails, intending
to harm the Buddha when he went to pay homage to him. He came from a
great distance to carry out his plot but when he reached this spot the earth
cracked open and he fell into hell alive.

To the south ofthe pit is another one, which was the place where Kokalika
Bhiksu fell into hell alive because he had slandered the Buddha.

More than eight hundred paces to the south of the pit of Kokalika there
is another large and deep pit, which was the place where the brahman woman
Cificà fell into hell alive because she had slandered the Buddha. Once, when
the Buddha was preaching the essentials of the Dharma to human and heavenly
beings, a [woman] disciple of a heretical religion saw him from a distance
in the assembly of respectful people. [The woman] thought, “Today I must
insult Gautama to spoil his fame so that only my teacher will enjoy a good
reputation." She hid a wooden basin inside her clothes and came to
Anathapindika Garden, where she declared aloud in the assembly, “This
preacher had illicit intercourse with me and the child in my womb is a Ѕакуа!”
The heretics believed in her words but the staunch followers of the Buddha
knew that she was committing slander. At that moment Indra, wishing to

149

900a

900b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

clear up their doubts, transformed himself into a white rat and gnawed through
the cord that bound the basin, which dropped down with a thud and startled
the assembly. All those who witnessed this event were greatly delighted. A
man in the assembly picked up the wooden basin and showed it to the woman,
saying, “Is this your child?" At that time the earth cracked open and the woman
fell alive into the hell of uninterrupted pain to suffer retribution.

All these three pits are bottomless and during the autumn and summer
seasons, when torrential rains inundate the ditches and pools, water never
collects in them.

Sixty or seventy paces to the east of the monastery is a temple over sixty
feet high, in which there is an image of the seated Buddha facing toward the
east. The Tathagata once held a discussion with the heretics at this place.
Further to the east is a deva temple, of the same size as the Buddhist temple.
At sunrise the shadow of the deva temple does not fall on the Buddhist temple,
but at sunset the shadow of the Buddhist temple covers the deva temple.

Three or four /i to the east of the overshadowing temple is a stupa built
at the place where Venerable Sariputra had a discussion with the heretics. At
the time Elder Sudatta first purchased Prince Jeta’s garden with the intention
of building a temple for the Tathagata, Venerable Sariputra went together
with the elder to make a survey of the plot. The teachers of the six heretical
schools challenged him to a contest in demonstrating supernatural powers.
Acting according to circumstances in carrying out edification, Sariputra sub-
dued the heretics in conformity with their propensities. In front of the temple
and beside the [Sariputra] stupa there is another stupa built at the spot where
the Tathagata defeated various heretics [in debate] and also accepted the invi-
tation of Mother Visakha.

To the south of the stupa of accepting the invitation is the place where
King Virüdhaka (formerly known as “Lord of Piliuli” erroneously), on his
way to invade the Sakyas, saw the Buddha and turned back his army. A fter
ascending the throne King Virüdhaka raised an army and mobilized his people
to avenge a former insult. When his troops were deployed he ordered them
to march. A bhiksu got wind of this and informed the Buddha about it. The
World-honored One then went to sit under a withered tree. When King
Virüdhaka saw the World-honored One from a distance, he dismounted to
worship him and stood to one side, asking, “Why do you not sit under a tree

150

Fascicle VI

with luxuriant branches and rich foliage, but instead stay under this tree with
dead branches and withered leaves?" The World-honored One said in reply,
*My clansmen are like branches and leaves to me. Now that they are in danger
where can I find shelter?" The king remarked, “The World-honored One is
speaking for his clanspeople. I should go back." He looked at the Buddha
and, moved by his compassion, he recalled his army.

Near the place of withdrawing troops is a stupa marking the spot where
the Sakya maidens were slaughtered. After King Virüdhaka won the battle
against the Sakyas he selected five hundred Sakya maidens for his harem.
The Sakya maidens indignantly uttered resentful words and insolently dis-
paraged the king as the son of a slave. When the king heard about this he
was enraged and ordered that the $аКуа maidens be slaughtered. By the
king's order the executioners severed [the women's] hands and feet and threw
them into a pit. The Sakya maidens, suffering bitter pain, called on the Buddha.
The World-honored One saw the sad plight of the maidens with his eye of
discernmen, and ordered a bhiksu to send some clothes to the maidens. He
then went to preach the wonderful Dharma to them, such as the bondage of
the five desires, the three ways of transmigration, and the long and distant
course of rebirth with the pain of separation from loved ones. On hearing
the Buddha's teachings the Sakya maidens got rid of defilements and gained
the pure eye of the Dharma. They all died at the same time and were reborn
in heaven. Indra appeared as a brahman and had their bodies collected and
cremated. People of later times recorded this event.

Not far from the stupa of the slaughter of the Sakya maidens is a large
dried-up pool where King Virüdhaka fell into hell. After visiting the Sakya
maidens the World-honored One returned to Anathapindika Garden and told
the bhiksus, “ King Virüdhaka will be burned to death after seven days."
Hearing the Buddha's prediction, the king became very frightened. [But] on
the seventh day the king was as happy as ever and had no [feeling of] danger.
To celebrate, he ordered the ladies of his harem to accompany him on an
outing to the riverside for merrymaking. But he still feared that a fire might
occur, so he sailed in a boat and drifted with the waves of the river. A blazing
fire suddenly broke out and burned the light boat and the king was thrown
alive into the hell of uninterrupted torture.

151

900c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Going three or four /i to the northwest of the monastery I reached the
Wood of Regaining Eyes. There are places where the Tathagata walked up
and down and various saints practiced meditation and stupas were built to
mark the sites.

In this country there was a band of five hundred brigands that ran amok in
the villages and plundered the cities. King Prasenajit arrested them, put out their
eyes, and threw them into a great forest. Suffering the painful torture of this
punishment, the bandits sorrowfully called on the Buddha. The Tathagata was
at Jetavana Temple, and he heard their pitiful voices and had compassion on
them. A cooling breeze blew mildly and wafted some medicine down from the
Snow Mountains, which filled their eyes and they recovered their eyesight. On
seeing the World-honored One standing before them they cherished the mind
of enlightenment (bodhicitta), worshiped him with happiness, and departed
after throwing down their staves, which then took root in the ground.

More than sixty /i to the northwest of the great city 1s an ancient city that
was the birthplace of Ka$yapa Buddha, who was born in the bhadrakalpa
(period of virtue) at the time when the human life span was twenty thousand
years. To the south ofthe city is a stupa marking the spot where he first met
his father after having realized full enlightenment. The stupa to the north of
the city contains the entire body of Kasyapa Buddha and all of these stupas
were erected by King A$oka.

Going from here to the southeast for over five hundred /i, I reached the country
of Kapilavastu (formerly mistranscribed as Jialuowei, in the domain of Central
India). The country of Kapilavastu is more than four thousand /i in circuit
and there are two palace cities, which are completely deserted. The wall of
the royal city is dilapidated and its circumference is unknown. The inner
palace city is fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit and its wall is built of bricks;
the foundation is thick and strong. The country has been deserted for a long
time and is sparsely populated. There is no grand ruler and each city has its
own lord. The soil is rich and crops are sown and reaped in season. The
climate is never abnormal and the people are genial by custom. There are
more than one thousand ruined foundations of old monasteries and beside
the palace city is a monastery inhabited by over three thousand monks, who
study the Hinayana teachings of the Sammittya school. There are two deva
temples, with heretics living together.

152

Fascicle VI

Inside the palace city is the old foundation of the main audience hall of
King Suddhodana. A statue of the king is placed in a shrine built on the old
foundation. Not far from this is the old foundation of Lady Mahamaya's bed-
chamber. A statue of the lady is kept in a shrine built on the old foundation.
Beside it is another shrine, marking the place where Sakya Bodhisattva's
spirit descended to incarnate in his mother's womb, and in this shrine there
Is a likeness depicting the Bodhisattva's spirit [entering his mother's womb].
According to the tradition of the Sthavira sect, the Bodhisattva's spirit entered
his mother's womb on the night of the thirtieth day of the month of Uttara-
Asadha, corresponding to the fifteenth day of the fifth month in our country.
The tradition of the other sects holds that this event took place on the night
of the twenty-third day of that month, corresponding to the eighth day of the
fifth month in our land.

To the northeast of the place ofthe descent of the Bodhisattva's spirit there
is a stupa marking the place where the rsi Asita read the prince's physiognomy.
On the day when the Bodhisattva was born many fortunate and auspicious
signs appeared simultaneously. King Suddhodana summoned various phys-
lognomists and said to them, “Now a son has been born to me. What is his
future, good or evil? Tell me straight in plain words." They said, “According
to the records of ancient sages and the appearance of good signs the prince
will be a universal monarch if he remains at home, and if he renounces home
he will become a fully enlightened person." At that time the rsi Asita came
from a distance and knocked on the door, requesting an audience. The king,
greatly delighted, greeted the rsi and paid him due salutation. He invited the
rsi to sit on a precious seat and said to him, “I did not expect that you, Great
Rsi, would condescend to favor me with your presence today.” The rs; said,
*When I was sitting at ease in the heavenly palace I suddenly saw the heavenly
beings dancing for joy. I asked them why they were so exhilarated. They said,
*We should inform you, Great Rsi, that the first lady of King Suddhodana of
the Sakya clan in Jambudvipa has given birth to a son today, who will attain
perfect enlightenment and omniscient wisdom.' Because I have heard this
information, I have come to see him. I regret that I am getting old and I will
not be able to hear his holy teachings."

At the south gate of the city there 1s a stupa marking the place where the
Prince Siddhartha wrestled with other Sakyas in a contest and threw an elephant

153

901a

901b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

[over the city moat]. A versatile youth, the prince was peerless and had no
equal. When King Suddhodana [heard that his son] was on his way back
home in a cheerful mood, he asked his mahout to drive an elephant out of
the city to greet him. Devadatta, always boastful of his strength, was then
coming into the city and asked the mahout, *You have caparisoned the ele-
phant nicely; who is going to ride it?” The mahout said, “Prince Siddhartha
is coming home. I am going out to serve him.” Devadatta, irritated by these
words, drew up next to the elephant, struck its forehead, and kicked its
abdomen. The animal fell to the ground and its body obstructed the road,
creating a hindrance in the way, but nobody could remove it. Later, Nanda
came and inquired, “Who killed this elephant?" *Devadatta," was the reply.
Nanda then pulled the dead elephant aside to the edge of the road. When the
prince arrived, he also asked, “Who is so wicked as to have killed this ele-
phant?” to which was replied, “It was Devadatta who killed this elephant to
blockade the city gate and Nanda pulled it aside to clear the way.” The prince
then lifted up the dead elephant and flung it across the moat. When the corpse
of the elephant fell to the ground it made a great pit, called by tradition the
Pit of the Falling Elephant. In the shrine beside the pit is a statue of the prince.
Another shrine beside it marks the site of the bedchamber of the prince’s
consort, where statues of Yasodhara and Rahula are kept. In the shrine beside
the palace is a statue [of the prince] in the posture of learning; this was the
old site of the prince’s schoolroom.

At the southeast corner of the city there is a shrine in which is a picture
of the prince riding on a white horse galloping in the air. This is the place
where he went out over the city wall. Outside the four gates of the city, there
are four shrines, separately keeping the statues of an aged man, a sick man,
a dead man, and a sramana. These were the places where the prince witnessed
on a pleasure trip the sorrowful sights by which he was moved to disgust at
worldly life, at which awakening he ordered the driver to turn his carriage
back and head for home.

Going southward for more than fifty /i from the city, I reached an old city
with a stupa. This was the natal city of Krakucchanda Buddha at the time of
the bhadrakalpa when the human life span was sixty thousand years. Not far
to the south is a stupa marking the place where this buddha met his father
after attaining full enlightenment. Inside the stupa at the southeast of the city

154

Fascicle VI

the remains of Krakucchanda are contained, and in front ofthe stupa is a stone
pillar over thirty feet high with a carving of a lion on top; the events of his
nirvana are inscribed on its sides. This pillar was erected by King Asoka.

Going northeast for more than thirty /i from the city of Krakucchanda
Buddha I reached a great ancient city with a stupa. This was the city where
Kanakamuni Buddha was born in the bhadrakalpa at the time when the
human life span was forty thousand years. Not far to the northeast is a stupa
marking the place where this buddha converted his father after attaining full
enlightenment. Further to the north is a stupa containing Kanakamuni's
remains. In front of the stupa is a stone pillar over twenty feet high with the
carving of a lion on top; the events of his nirvana are inscribed on its sides.
This pillar was erected by King Asoka.

More than forty /i to the northeast of the city is a stupa that marks the spot
where Prince [Siddhartha] once sat under the shade of a tree, watching farmers
plowing the land, and practiced meditation through which he became free
of the passions. King Suddhodana saw the prince sitting in meditation under
the shade of the tree, and he noticed that the shadow of the tree never moved
even as the sunlight changed the direction. Reminded that the prince was a
saintly person, the king treasured and respected him all the more.

In the northwest of the city are hundreds and thousands of stupas built at
the place where the Sakyas were slaughtered. After overcoming the Sakyas
King Virüdhaka captured ninety-nine million nine hundred thousand Sakya
people and massacred them all. The corpses were piled up like haystacks
and blood flowed into a pool. The corpses were collected and buried amid
the panic of heavenly beings and the terror in human minds.

To the southwest of the place where the Sakyas were slaughtered are four
small stupas built at the spots where four Sakya men resisted the [invading]
army. When King Prasenajit first succeeded to the throne he sought a mat-
rimonial alliance with the Sakya clan. The Sakyas despised him as someone
who was not of the same caste and, with pompous ceremony, they deceitfully
gave him a slave girl to be his bride. King Prasenajit made the girl his chief
queen and their son was King Virüdhaka. Virüdhaka wished to pursue his
studies under the guidance of his maternal uncle. When he came to the south
of the city he saw a new lecture hall and went in to take a rest. Hearing this,
the Sakyas chased him while out chastising him, “How dare you, the son of

155

901c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

a slave woman, stay in this hall?” The hall had been built by the Sakyas for
the Buddha's use. After ascending the throne, Virüdhaka made up his mind
to avenge the previous insult and stationed an army at this place. There were
four Sakya men there, who were plowing the land, and they resisted and dis-
persed the invading army. Then the four men entered the city but their clans-
people thought that, as the descendants of a universal monarch and the off-
spring of a dharmaraja, should not have dared to commit violence and so
complacently kill others. Because they had blemished the clan’s good name
they were expelled from the clan and banished, exiled to the Snow Mountains
in the north. One of the four Sakyas became the king of Udyana, one the
king of Bamiyana, one the king of Himatala, and one the king of Shangmi.
They handed down their dominions to their descendants from generation to
generation without interruption.

Three or four /i to the south of the city, in a banyan wood, is a stupa built
by King Asoka. This was the place where Sakya Tathagata, returning home
after having gained full enlightenment, saw his father and preached the Dharma
for him. Knowing that the Tathagata had subdued the army of Mara, the Evil
One, and was traveling around to edify the people, King Suddhodana was
eager to see him and pay homage to him. So he dispatched a messenger to
invite the Tathagata with these words: “Formerly you promised to return to
your native country after becoming a buddha. Your words are still ringing in
my ears and it is time now for you to turn your steps toward home.” The mes-
senger came into the Buddha’s presence and related the king’s message. The
Tathagata told him, “After seven days I will return to my home country.” The
messenger returned and reported this message to the king. So King Suddhodana
ordered his ministers and the people to sprinkle water and sweep the roads and
streets and prepare flowers and incense ready for use. Accompanied by his
ministers, he went out to a distance of forty /i to wait for the Buddha’s arrival.

At that time the Tathagata and his retinue of disciples, protected by the
eight diamond (vajra) guardians and with the four heavenly kings as van-
guards, with Indra and the celestial beings of the kamadhatu (realm of sensual
desire) attending on his left and Brahma and the celestial beings of the ripa-
dhàtu (realm of pure form) attending on his right, and with all the bhiksus
following behind, walked through the air to his home country. In the assembly
the Buddha was like the moon among the stars; his austerity moved all the

156

Fascicle VI

three realms of the world and his radiance surpassed the light of the seven
luminaries. After the king and his ministers had worshiped the Buddha they
all returned to the capital city, and the Buddha stayed at Banyan Monastery.

Not far from the monastery is a stupa marking the place where the Tatha-
gata once sat under a big tree, facing east, and accepted the gift of a robe
sewn with golden thread offered by his aunt. There is another stupa nearby,
built at the place where the Tathagata converted eight princes and five hundred
Sakya clanspeople.

Inside the east gate of the city, on the left side of the road, is a stupa at
the place where Prince Siddhartha practiced various skills and attainments.
Outside the gate is an I$vara deva temple in which a stone image of I$vara
in the posture of standing up is enshrined. This was the temple that the prince
entered when he was in his swaddling clothes. When King Suddhodana
brought the prince home from Lumbini he passed by this temple on the way
and said, “This deva temple often manifests spiritual responses and is sure
to answer the prayers of Sakya children. The prince should be sent in to wor-
ship the deva." The nurse brought the prince into the temple and the stone
image of the deva stood up to greet him; when the prince left the deva image
resumed its seat.

Outside the south gate of the city, on the left side of the road, is a stupa
at the place where the prince, competing with other Sakyas in the arts of war,
shot at iron drums. At a distance of more than thirty /i to the southeast from
here is a small stupa, beside which is a spring flowing with clear water. While
competing with other Sakyas in the skill of archery, the prince drew his bow,
and, as the arrow left the bow it pierced through the surface of the drums
and hit the ground, sinking into the earth up to its fletching. The spring of
pure water formed at that spot, by tradition called Arrow Spring. When people
are sick they drink the water or bathe in it and in most cases they are cured.
People travel from distant places to collect the clay of the spring and make
it into a paste, which is applied on on the forehead whenever they have any
ailment. As the clay is protected by spirits and deities it has a healing effect
in most cases.

Going northeast from the Arrow Spring for eighty or ninety /i I reached
Lumbini Wood, where there is a bathing pool full of transparent water, with
flowers of different descriptions spreading all over the place. Twenty-four

157

902a

902b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

or twenty-five paces to the north of the pool is an asoka tree, now withered;
this was the place where the Bodhisattva was born into the world. The Bodhi-
sattva was born on the eighth day of the second half of the month of Vaisakha,
corresponding to the eighth day of the third month in our calendar, though
the Sthavira sect holds that it was on the fifteenth day of the second half of
the month of Vaisakha, corresponding to the fifteenth day of the third month
in our calendar. Further east is a stupa built by King Asoka at the place where
two dragons bathed the [newborn] prince. After he had been born the Bodhi-
sattva walked seven steps unaided to each of the four quarters and announced,
“Tn the heavens above and on the earth below, I am the sole Honored One!
From now on I shall have no more rebirth.” Under each step a large lotus
flower sprang up from the earth. Two dragons appeared in the air, one emitting
cool water and the other warm water, to bathe him.

To the east of the stupa of bathing the prince are two lucid springs, beside
which are two stupas built at the place where two dragons emerged from the
earth. After the Bodhisattva was born his relatives and clanspeople hurried
to get the water to wash themselves, and in front of Lady Mahamaya two
springs, one cold and one hot, gushed out water for them bathe in. A stupa
at the south marks the place where Indra received the Bodhisattva with both
hands when the Bodhisattva was born. Indra knelt down to catch him in a
piece of wondrous celestial cloth. Next are four stupas marking the place
where the four heavenly kings carried the Bodhisattva. When the Bodhisattva
was born from the right side of his mother the four heavenly kings caught
him in a piece of golden-colored fine cotton and placed him on a small gold
table, which they carried into the presence of his mother, saying “It is truly
a joyous event for celebration that Your Ladyship has given birth to such a
blessed son. Even the heavenly beings are delighted, not to speak of the
human beings of the earth.”

Not far from the stupa where the four heavenly kings carried the prince
there used to be a great stone pillar erected by King Asoka, with the figure
of a horse on top. It was later broken in the middle by a thunderbolt caused
by an evil dragon, and half of it fell onto the ground. Beside the broken pillar
is a rivulet flowing toward the east, called Oil River by the local people. After
Lady Mahamaya had given birth [to the prince] the heavenly beings produced

158

Fascicle VI

a pool of lucent and pure water at this place for the lady to bathe herself, so
as to wash offthe soil and dust. It has now become [an oily stream of] water.

From here going eastward for more than two hundred /i through a wild jungle,
I reached the country of Rama[grama] (in the domain of Central India). The
country of Ràma has been deserted for many years and it has no boundary
marks. The towns and villages are in ruins and are sparsely populated. To
the southeast of the old capital city is a brick stupa less than one hundred
feet high, built by a former king of this country. When the Tathagata had
entered nirvana the king of this country obtained a portion of his relic bones,
which he brought back to his own country; he built this stupa for paying
homage to his share of the relics. It shows spiritual manifestations from time
to time and often emits a divine light.

Beside the stupa is a clear pool from which a dragon often emerges in the
shape of a snake to worship the stupa, circumambulating it from left to right.
Wild elephants come in groups to pick flowers and scatter them on the stupa,
which has been under spiritual protection without cease. When King Asoka
was constructing more stupas for the dissemination of the Buddha's relic
bones, he opened up the stupas formerly built in seven countries to take out
the relic bones [for redistribution]. When he came to this country and was
about to start working [on the stupa], the dragon of the pool, fearing that he
might be deprived of the relics, appeared as a brahman and halted the king's
elephant, saying, “Your Majesty's goodwill extends to the buddha-dharma
and you have widely cultivated the field of blessedness. I venture to invite
you to deign to visit my abode." The king said, ^Where is your home? Is it
far away or nearby?" The brahman said, “Т am the dragon king of this pool.
As Your Majesty wishes to perform superior deeds of blessedness, I have
ventured to come and beg for an interview." At his invitation, the king entered
the dragon’s palace and, after sitting for a while, the dragon said, “Due to
my past evil deeds I have been born in the shape of a dragon. I make offerings
to the Buddha's relics in the hope that I may eliminate my sins and faults. I
wish for you to come see and worship the relics in person." Seeing the dragon's
paraphernalia for worshiping the relics, the king was awed by their splendor
and said, “These utensils for making offerings are not to be seen in the human
world." The dragon said, “If that is so, I pray that you will not demolish

159

902c

903a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

them." Thinking that he was not equal to the dragon in power, King Asoka
relinquished the idea of opening up that stupa. A mound marks the spot where
he came out of the pool.

Not far from the stupa is a monastery with few monks. It is a quiet and
clean place under the management of a sramanera (novice). Monks coming
from distant places are well received with hospitality and invited to stay for
three days to receive offerings of the four monastic requisites. The local
people say that once a bhiksu came with some fellow monks from a distant
place to worship the stupa and they saw a group of elephants bustling about,
weeding grass with their tusks and sprinkling water with their trunks, each
of them holding different kinds of flowers to make offerings. At this sight
the monks were deeply moved and sighed with pity. One of the bhiksus relin-
guished his position as a fully ordained monk in order to stay behind [as a
sramanera] to attend the stupa. He said farewell to the other monks, saying,
“T am lucky to have become a member, though an incompetent one, of the
community of monks. Through the passage of time I have made no achieve-
ment in my spiritual practice. As this stupa contains the Buddha's relics, the
elephants are inspired by his holy virtues to come to keep the place clean. I
am willing to stay here to work together with them. If I can spend the rest
of my life here I will be very fortunate indeed." The other monks told him,
“Tt is a good idea and we are so ignorant as not to have thought of it ourselves.
Please take care of yourself and do not fail in your superior deed."

Having parted from his companions, the sramanera repeated his sincere
vow and lived alone happily with the intention of living in this manner until
the end of his life. He built a thatched hut and channeled water into a tank.
He plucked seasonal flowers [as offerings] and kept the place clean by sprin-
kling water and sweeping the ground, dong this for many years in succession
without changing his mind. The kings of the neighboring countries heard
about him [and felt] deep respect; they vied with one another to donate money
and valuables for the construction of a monastery and invited the sramanera
to supervise the monastic affairs. Since then the abbot of this monastery has
always been a sramanera, in memory of the original institution.

Going east from Sramanera Monastery for more than a hundred /i through
a big forest, I reached a great stupa built by King Asoka at the place where
Prince Siddhartha halted after he had gone out over the city wall, taken off

160

Fascicle VI

his precious garments, untied his necklace, and asked his servant, Chandaka,
to return to the palace. The prince went over the city wall at midnight and
reached this place at daybreak, and, having fulfilled his cherished desire, he
said to himself, “This is the place where I escape from prison, unfasten the
fetters, and unyoke myself at last" He removed the mani pearl from his
crown and said to his servant, “Take this pearl and go home to inform my
father, the king, that my present retirement to a distant place 1s not an incon-
siderate departure from home; I have done so because I wish to cut off what
is impermanent and abandon all that causes pain and distress." Chandaka
(formerly called Cheli erroneously) said, *How can I have the mind to drive
the empty carriage home?" The prince consoled the servant with good words,
and Chandaka became awakened and returned home.

On the east ofthe stupa where the carriage was sent home there is a jambu
tree (Eugenia jambolana) whose branches and leaves have withered, but the
decayed trunk is still there. Beside the tree is a small stupa marking the place
where the prince changed his remaining precious garments for a deerskin
robe. Although he had already cut off his hair, changed his clothes, and taken
off his pearl necklace, the prince still had his royal robe with him. He thought,
“This robe is too luxurious; what shall I do for a change [of clothes]?" At that
moment a heavenly being of Suddhavasa (Heaven of Pure Abode”) appeared
as a hunter, wearing a deerskin robe, holding a bow and carrying some arrows.
The prince, holding out his robe, said to the hunter, “I wish to exchange this
[clothing] for yours. Will you kindly consent?" The hunter agreed. The prince
then took off his upper garment and handed it to the hunter, who resumed his
heavenly form and flew away through the air with the garment he had bartered.

Not far away from the place where Prince Siddhartha changed his clothes
is a stupa built by King Asoka at the spot where the prince had his hair shaved
off. The prince asked for a razor from Chandaka and cut off his own locks,
which Indra received and brought to his heavenly palace for worship. At that
time a celestial being of the Heaven of Pure Abode appeared as a barber,
approaching slowly with a razor in his hand. The prince asked him, “Can
you shave my head? Please give me the tonsure." Accordingly the transformed
figure shaved his head.

The exact time when the prince left home by going over the city wall, in
order to become a monk, is uncertain. Some say it was when the Bodhisattva

161

903b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

was nineteen years old, others say he was twenty-nine years old at the time.
It is said that Prince Siddhartha renounced home on the eighth day of the
second half of the month of Vaišakha, corresponding to the eighth day of the
third month of our calendar; or that it was on the fifteenth day of the second
half of the month of Vaisakha, corresponding to the fifteenth day of the third
month of our calendar.

From the stupa where the prince had his head shaved, going southeast for
one hundred eighty or ninety /i through a wilderness, I reached a banyan
grove in which there is a stupa over thirty feet high. When the Tathagata
entered nirvana and his relics were distributed, the brahmans who had not
obtained a share of the relics collected the ashes and charcoal from the ground
of the nistapana (meaning “burning,” formerly known as shewei by mistake)
and brought them home; they built this holy reliquary for worship. Since
then it has manifested many miracls and most of the sick people who have
prayed for recovery here have received a response.

In the old monastery beside the ash and charcoal stupa are places where
the four past buddhas sat and walked up and down. On both sides of the old
monastery are several hundred stupas, among which a large one was built
by King Asoka. Although its lofty foundation has collapsed it is still over
one hundred feet in height.

From here going northeast I proceeded through a great forest along a
rough and dangerous road with perilous obstacles all along the way. Mountain
oxen and wild elephants, as well as brigands and hunters, watch for travelers
and constantly do harm to them.

Coming out of this forest I reached the country of Kusinagara (in the domain
of Central India). The city wall of the capital of the country of Kusinagara
Is in ruins and the towns and villages are deserted. The brick foundations of
the city wall are more than ten /i in circuit; there are very few inhabitants
and the streets and lanes are in desolation. At the northeast corner of the orig-
inal city is a stupa built by King Asoka at the old residence of Cunda (formerly
mistranscribed as Xuntuo). In the residence there is a well that was dug at
the time when a meal was prepared for the Buddha. Although the well has
been there for many long years the water is still clear and sweet.

Ata place three or four /i to the northwest of the city I crossed the Ajitavatt
River (“Unsurpassed,” the name in common use, mistaken for the Airavatt

162

Fascicle VI

River in olden times; in the texts it is known as Hiranyavatt [“‘Possessing
Gold"] River). Not far from the west bank of the river is Sàla Grove. The
sala tree is similar to an oak, with a greenish-white bark and very glossy
leaves. Four of the trees in the grove are unusually tall and mark the place
where the Tathagata entered nirvana. In a large brick temple there is a statue
of the Tathagata in the posture of entering nirvana, lying down with his head
toward the north. Beside the temple is a stupa built by King Asoka. Although
the foundation has collapsed it is still over two hundred feet high. In front of
it is a stone pillar on which is inscribed a a record of the event of the Tathagata’s
nirvana, but no date is mentioned in the record. It is said in previous record,
however, that the Buddha entered parinirvana (complete cessation of rebirth)
at the age of eighty, on the fifteenth day of the second half of the month of
Vaisakha, corresponding to the fifteenth day of the third month in our calendar.
According to the tradition of the Sarvastivada school, the Buddha entered
parinirvana on the eighth day of the second half of the month of Karttika,
corresponding to the eighth day of the ninth month in our calendar. The different
schools hold variant views concerning the time elapsed since the Buddha’s
nirvana; some say it has been more than one thousand two hundred years,
others say one thousand three hundred, or one thousand five hundred, or more
than nine hundred but less than one thousand.

Not far from the temple is a stupa marking the place where the Tathagata
put out a fire when, in a previous life, in the course of cultivating the bodhi-
sattva deeds, he was born as a pheasant. There once was a great forest at this
place and the animals and birds lived in caves and nests. One day a gale blew
hard just as a fire broke out and burned fiercely. A pheasant, having pity on
the other creatures, flapped its wings in a stream and flew up into the air to
sprinkle water over the fire. At that moment Indra lowered his head and said
to the pheasant, “Why are you so foolishly working so hard with your wings,
to no avail? The great fire has just broken out and the whole forest is ablaze.
How can you put it out with the effort of your feeble body?” The pheasant
said, “Who is it that is speaking to me?” Indra said, “I am Indra.” The pheasant
said, “If you are Indra, a being possessing great power of blessedness, you
may achieve anything you wish. To relieve creatures from disaster and rescue
those who are in trouble are as easy for you as looking at the palm of your
hand. Yet now you say that I am laboring without effect. Whoe will be blamed?

163

903c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The fire burns fiercely; I cannot talk with you any more!" The bird then flew
vigorously to the stream to fetch more water. Indra then scooped up water
with his hands and sprinkled it over the forest. The fire was quenched, the
smoke vanished, and the animals were saved from the flames. Therefore it
is called the Stupa of Fire-fighting.

Not far from the place where the pheasant put out a fire is a stupa marking
the spot where the Tathagata, born as a deer in a previous life when in the
course of cultivating the bodhisattva deeds, saved creatures. In the remote
past there was a great forest at this place. A conflagration spread in the wilder-
ness and the birds and animals were trapped and in a dangerous plight, with
the impediments of a rapid stream in front and a violent fire pressing hard
from the back. A few of them were not drowned in the stream and escaped
death. A deer, having pity on the other animals, strained itself to stretch its
body across the stream in order to save the others from drowning. Despite
the pain caused by its injured skin and broken bones, the deer endured its
fatigue and pain until the last animal, a lame hare, had crossed over and been
rescued. Exhausted, the deer fell into the stream and drowned. The heavenly
beings collected its carcass and built a stupa for it.

Not far to the west of the place where the deer rescued creatures from
drowning is a stupa marking the spot where Subhadra (known as Shanxian,
“Good Sage," formerly mistranscribed as Subatuoluo) entered nirvana. Subha-
dra, originally a brahmanical teacher, was a wise man of one hundred and
twenty years of age. When he heard that the Buddha was about to enter
nirvana he came to the twin [sala] trees and asked Ananda, “As the Buddha,
the World-honored One, is about to enter nirvana, may I ask him to solve
the doubts I have in my mind?" Ananda said, “The Buddha is about to enter
nirvana; please do not disturb him.” [Subhadra] said, “I have heard that we
rarely have a chance to be born at a time when a buddha is living in the world,
and that we cannot often hear the right Dharma. I am afraid I will have no
one else to resolve my deep doubts." Subhadra then came into the Buddha's
presence and asked him, “There are different groups of self-styled teachers
who have variant Dharmas to guide the world here below. Do you know
them all, Gautama (formerly known as Qutan in an erroneous and abridged
form)?" The Buddha said, “I have made a profound study of them all” and
he then gave a description [of the different doctrines]. After having heard the

164

Fascicle VI

Buddha's words, Subhadra purified his mind with faith and understanding and
asked for permission to become a fully ordained Buddhist monk. The Tathagata
asked him, “Are you able to become a Buddhist monk? The heterodox disciples
who wish to lead the life of purity have to go through probation for four years
during which their demeanor and character are observed. If they are found to
be quiet in behavior and honest in speech, they can then be admitted into my
order to lead a life of purity. It all depends on one's effort; there is no difficulty.”
Subhadra said, *World-honored One, you are so kind and sympathetic that you
are impartial in saving living beings. Through four years' probation, the three
sorts of deeds (of body, speech, and mind) may be straightened in good order."
The Buddha said, “As I have already said, it all depends on one's effort.”

Subhadra then became a monk and received full ordination. He diligently
cultivated himself for both mental and physical strength. A moment later he
cleared his mind of doubts concerning the Dharma and tried to achieve personal
realization. Shortly after dusk, he actually attained arhatship with all the pas-
sions extirpated and the pure life established. Because he could not bear seeing
the Buddha enter mahanirvana, he entered the samadhi (trance) of the element
of fire and manifested supernatural powers and then he hinself entered nirvana
before the Buddha. He became the Tathagata's last disciple but died before
him. In a previous life Subhadra was the lame hare, the last animal to be
rescued [by the courageous deer].

Beside the spot where Subhadra entered nirvana is a stupa at the place
where Vajrapani (“Holder of the Vajra") fell into a swoon. The great sym-
pathetic World-honored One, having completed his task of edifying living
beings according to their capacities and for their benefit, entered the blissful
state of nirvana at the twin [52/а] trees, lying down with his head toward the
north. The deity Vajrapani, (alias) the warrior Guhyapati (“Lord of the Mys-
teries”), having seen the Buddha enter nirvana, cried sorrowfully, “The Tatha-
gata has forsaken me and entered mahanirvana. I have no place in which to
take refuge and no one to protect me. It is just as 1f a poisoned arrow has
deeply struck me and a fire of distress fiercely burns me." He dropped his
diamond (vajra) club and fell into a swoon. After a long while he stood up
and said to the others, “In the great sea of birth and death, who will be our
boat and oars? In the long night of ignorance, who will be our lamp and
torch?"

165

904a

904b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Beside the place where Vajrapani fell into a swoon there is a stupa where
[the remains of] the Tathagata were venerated for seven days after his nirvana.
When the Tathagata was about to enter nirvana a bright light shone everywhere
and human and heavenly beings gathered together in grief. They said to one
another, “The great enlightened World-honored One is now about to enter
nirvana. Living beings will come to the end of blessedness and the world
will have no one on whom to depend." The Tathagata, lying on his right side
on a lion bed, told the gathering, “Do not say that the Tathagata has eventually
entered nirvana, as the dharma body [of a buddha] is immutable and free
from all changes. You should ward off indolence and try to gain liberation
as quickly as possible." The bhiksus and others wept sadly.

At that time Aniruddha (formerly mistranscribed as Anilü) told the bhiksus,
"Stop, stop! Grieve no more! The heavenly beings will reproach you and
ridicule you!" After the Malla people had made offerings to the remains,
they wished to carry the golden coffin to the fumeral ghat for burning. Ani-
ruddha said to them, “Wait a moment! The heavenly beings wish to keep it
here for seven days in order to make offerings to it.” The heavenly beings,
holding exquisite celestial flowers, flew through the air and chanted praise
ofthe Buddha's holy virtues. Every one of them worked with utmost sincerity
to make offerings [to the Buddha's remains].

Beside the place where the coffin was lodged is a stupa at the place where
Lady Mahamaya lamented the Buddha's demise. After the Tathagata had
entered nirvana and his remains had been laid in the coffin, Aniruddha
ascended to the heaven to inform Lady Mahamaya, saying, “The great holy
King of the Dharma has entered nirvana." Hearing this news, Mahamaya
was choked with sobs and fainted. [When she had recovered her conscious-
ness] she went with the heavenly beings to the twin [sa/a] trees, where she
saw [the Buddha's] samghati (double robe), almsbowl, and pewter staff. She
stroked these articles, weeping piteously, until she fainted again, and when
she regained her voice she said, “Human and heavenly beings have come to
the end of their blessedness and the Eye of the World has disappeared. Now
these things are without an owner!" By the Tathagata's saintly power the
coffin opened by itself. The Buddha emitted a bright light, sat up with his
hands joined palm to palm, and consoled his compassionate mother for having
come down from a far distance [to see him], saying, “Such is the law of all

166

Fascicle VI

things. Please do not be overwhelmed by excessive grief." With a sorrowful
mind, Ananda asked the Buddha, “What shall I say when people in the future
ask me about today's events?" [The Buddha replied,] *You may say that after
the Buddha's nirvana his compassionate mother came down from the heavenly
palace to the twin [sala] trees. As a lesson to unfilial people, the Tathagata
sat up in the golden coffin and preached the Dharma [for his mother] with
his hands joined palm to palm."

More than three hundred paces across the river at the north of the city there
was a stupa at the place where the Tathagata's body was cremated. The earth
is a dark yellow color and the soil is mixed with ashes and charcoal. If one
prays earnestly he may obtain sariras (relic bones) at this place. After the
Tathagata had entered nirvana human and heavenly beings, lamenting sor-
rowfully, made a coffin out of the seven precious substances and enshrouded
his body in a thousand layers of cotton cloth. Holding incense and flowers,
as well as banners and canopies, the Mallas pulled the hearse in a procession,
some at the front and some following behind the coffin, to the north of Gold
River. They prepared a pyre with sufficient fragrant oil and sweet-scented
wood and set fire to it. Two layers of the shroud, the innermost one next to
the body and the outer one, were not burned. When the people distributed the
Sariras they found that the hair and nails were neatly intact.

Beside the place of cremation is the spot where the Tathagata showed his
feet to Mahakasyapa. After the Tathagata's coffin had been laid down and
the pyre of fragrant wood had already been piled up, it could not be kindled,
to the astonishment of the assembly. Aniruddha said, “It is merely waiting
for Kasyapa.” At that moment, Mahakasyapa and his five hundred disciples
came from the mountains to the city of Kusinagara, and he asked Ananda,
*May I have a look at the World-honored One?" Ananda said, *His body is
wrapped in a thousand layers of cotton cloth and laid in a double coffin, and
fragrant wood has already been piled up for the cremation." At that time [the
body of] the Tathagata lying in the coffin stretched out its feet. When Kasyapa
noticed that the wheel sign on the soles of the Buddha's feet had a strange
color, he asked Ananda, “Why is this so?" [Ananda] said, “At the moment
when the Buddha entered nirvana human and heavenly beings wept piteously,
and their tears dyed his soles this strange color." Then Ka$yapa paid homage
to the coffin by circumambulating it while chanting praises [of the Buddha],

167

904c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

and the fragrant wood spontaneously burst into huge flames. Thus after his
nirvana the Tathagata thrice appeared from his coffin: first, he stretched his
arm to ask Ananda to repair the road; second, he sat up to preach the Dharma
for his mother; and last, he showed his feet to Mahakasyapa.

Beside the spot where the Buddha showed his feet is a stupa built by King
A$oka at the place where the eight kings shared the relics. In front of the
stupa is a stone pillar on which [a description of] the event is inscribed. After
the Buddha's body was cremated after his nirvana, the kings of eight countries
arrived with their four divisions of troops and dispatched the straight-natured
brahman to tell the Mallas of Kusinagara, “As the teacher of human and
heavenly beings has entered nirvana in this country, we have come here from
afar to share his relics." The Mallas said, “The Tathagata was in our country
when we were bereaved of the Guide of the World and lost the father of living
beings, so naturally we should keep the relics of the Tathagata for worship.
You will receive nothing despite the weariness you endured on your journey."
Since the kings' solicitation was not granted, they said again, “If you do not
comply with our polite request we wil consider using force." The straight-
natured brahman warned them, “Just think it over! The great sympathetic
World-honored One patiently cultivated blessedness and good deeds for
numerous kalpas in the past. I think that all of you have heard this. It is inap-
propriate for you to fight each other. Since the relics are in this country they
should be divided into eight equal portions, and each of you can have a share
for worship. What is the use of resorting to force?" The Mallas listened to
his words but when they were about to divide the relics into eight equal por-
tions, Indra said to the kings, “The heavenly beings also have a right to share
a portion of the relics. Do not compete for a share on the strength of your
might." Then the лага kings Anavatapta, Mucilinda, and Elapattra also made
a proposal, saying, “Do not forget about us. As far as strength is concerned,
none of you is our equal!” The straight-natured brahman said, “Do not quarrel!
We should all share the relics.” The relics were then divided into three portions,
one for the heavenly beings, one for the nagas, and one for the human world,
and the third portion was further subdivided into eight parts and allotted to
the eight kings. The heavenly beings, nàágas, and kings were all deeply moved.

Going southwest for more than two hundred /i from the stupa of the division
of the relics I reached a great town. There was a brahman of enormous wealth,

168

Fascicle VI

who was quite different from other brahmans. He was learned in the five
vidyas (“knowledges”) and venerated the Triple Gem. He constructed a
monastery, decorated with various kinds of jewels, next to his residence, and
provided all sorts of daily requisites. Whenever monks traveled by way of
this monastery he always earnestly invited them to stay and receive offerings
for one night or up to seven days. Later, when King Sasànka persecuted the
buddha-dharma, no groups of monks came this way for many years and the
brahman regretfully cherished the memory of them.

One day he was taking а walk and saw a sramana with heavy eyebrows
and white hair, approaching with a pewter staff in hand. He hurried to greet
the monk and inquired where he had come from and where he was going,
and invited him to the monastery to receive various kinds of offerings. The
following morning he offered the monk some gruel cooked in pure milk. As
soon as the monk tasted the gruel he put down the bowl and sighed heavily.
The brahman who was serving the monk with food knelt down and said,
“You grant benefit to the people according to circumstances and have come
to favor me with your presence. Did you not sleep well last night? Or is the
gruel unpalatable?” The monk said with regret, “I am sorry that the blessedness
of living beings is decreasing. Let us not talk about it now. I shall tell you
something after the meal." When breakfast was over the monk tidied his robe
and made ready to depart. The brahman said, “You promised that you would
say something. Why do you not say it now?" The monk told him, “I did not
forget about it but it is not easy for me to say it. It might cause suspicion. If
you insist on hearing what I have to say I shall tell you in brief. I sighed not
because I disliked the gruel but because for several hundred years I have not
tasted such a flavor. When the Tathagata was living in the world I used to
follow him, serving as an attendant at Jetavana Temple in the city of Rajagrha
to wash his eating bowl in a pure stream. I also bathed, rinsed my mouth,
and washed my hands and face [in that stream]. What a pity that the pure
milk of today is less tasty than the plain water of yore! This is because the
blessedness of human and heavenly beings is decreasing." The brahman said,
“In that case, great virtuous one, you must have seen the Buddha in person.”
The monk said, *Yes. Have you heard about Rahula, the son of the Buddha?
I am Rahula. In order to protect the right Dharma I did not enter nirvana."
Having said this, the monk suddenly disappeared.

169

905a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The brahman then daubed the room where the monk had spent the night
with incense and swept it clean. An image of the monk was installed in the
room in a solemn manner and was worshiped just as if the monk was present.

Going through a great forest for more than five hundred /i, I reached the
country of Baranasi (formerly called the country of Boluonai by mistake, in
the domain of Central India).
End of Fascicle VI of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

170

Fascicle VII

Five Countries, from
Вагапаѕ to Nepāla

1. The Country of Вагапазї 4. The Country of Vrji
2. The Country of Garjanapati 5. The Country of Nepala
3. The Country of Vaisalt

The country of Baranasi is more than four thousand /i in circuit and the capital
city, with the Ganges River on the west, is eighteen or nineteen /i long and
five or six li wide. The houses in the lanes and streets of the city are close
together and it is densely populated. The inhabitants are enormously wealthy
and their houses are full of valuable goods. The people are mild and courteous
in nature and esteem learning by custom. Most of them believe in heretical
theories and few people venerate the buddha-dharma. The climate is temperate
and the cereal crops are abundant. The fruit trees grow luxuriantly and the
vegetation is rich. There are over thirty monasteries with more than three
thousand monks, all of whom study the teachings of the Hinayana Sammitiya
school. There are more than one hundred deva temples with over ten thousand
heretical followers. Most of them worship Mahe$vara. Some of them cut
their hair while others keep it in a topknot. They go naked without any dress
and smear their bodies with ash. They rigorously practice austerities, seeking
freedom from birth and death.

Inside the great city there are twenty deva temples, of which the sanctuaries
are built with carved stone and ornamental wood on terraces arranged in
tiers. Luxuriant trees cast shade over each other and clear streams flow
throughout. There is a brass statue of the deity, less than one hundred feet
tall, depicted in a solemn manner with a stately appearance as if it were alive.

To the northeast of the great city and on the west bank of the Varana River
is a stupa more than one hundred feet high that was built by King Asoka. In
front of it is a pillar of green stone as smooth as a mirror and the Tathagata's
image is often visible on the lustrous surface.

171

905b

905c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Going to the northeast of the Varana River for more than ten /i, I reached
Deer Park Monastery, which consists of eight divisions all within one enclos-
ing wall. There are lofty halls and storied pavilions most splendidly con-
structed, with one thousand five hundred monks, all of whom study the teach-
ings of the Hinayana Sammittya school. Within the great enclosure there is
a temple over two hundred feet high with a gilt amra (mango) fruit carved
in relief on top. The foundation and steps are made of stone, while the niches
arranged in rows are of brick. Around the niches there are one hundred steps,
and in each niche is enshrined a gilt image of the Buddha. Inside the temple
there is a life-size brass image of the Buddha in the posture of turning the
wheel of the Dharma.

To the northeast of the temple is a stone stupa built by King Ašoka. Although
the foundation has collapsed the remaining trunk is still one hundred feet
high. In front is a stone pillar more than seventy feet tall, as smooth as jade
and as reflective as a mirror. With earnest prayer one may see various shadowy
pictures in the surface, and sometimes good or evil omens can also be seen
This was the place where the Tathagata, after having attained full enlightenment,
first turned the wheel of the Dharma. Not far from here a stupa marks the spot
where Ajfiata-Kaundinya and the others went when they saw that the Bodhi-
sattva had abandoned the practice of austerities. They refused to be his atten-
dants and guards and came to this place to practice meditation by themselves.
The stupa beside it was the place where five hundred pratyekabuddhas entered
nirvana together. There are also three other stupas marking sites where the
three past buddhas sat and walked up and down.

The stupa located beside the place where the three past buddhas walked
up and down marks the spot where Maitreya (being a surname, meaning
“Compassion” in Chinese, formerly called Mile in erroneous abbreviation)
Bodhisattva received the prediction of his attainment of buddhahood. Once
on Vulture Peak, near the city of Rajagrha, the Tathagata told the bhiksus, “In
the future, when the human life span will be eighty thousand years, there will
be in this flat land of Jambudvipa a son of a brahman of the Maitreya family,
with a golden-colored body, shining brightly. He will relinquish his home to
achieve full enlightenment and preach the Dharma widely for the living beings
in three assemblies. Those who will be saved by him are beings who have
cultivated the deeds of blessedness according to the teachings I will have left

172

Fascicle VII

to them. Beacuse they deeply and wholeheartedly venerate the Triple Gem
they will receive edification and guidance and attain sainthood and emanci-
pation, whether they are laypeople or monks and whether they observe or
violate the disciplinary rules. In the three preaching assemblies those who
have followed my bequeathed Dharma will be saved first, and then good
friends who have the cause to be saved will be edified.”

When Maitreya Bodhisattva heard what the Buddha had said, he stood
up from his seat and said to the Buddha, “I wish to be that Maitreya, the
World-honored One!" The Tathagata told him, “As you have said, you will
achieve that fruit. What I have said above is intended for your edification."

To the west of the place where Maitreya Bodhisattva received his prediction
is a stupa marking the spot where Sakya Bodhisattva received his prophecy.
At the time when the human life span was twenty thousand years in the
bhadrakalpa, Kasyapa Buddha emerged in the world and turned the wonderful
wheel of the Dharma to edify living beings. He prophesied the future of
Prabhapala Bodhisattva, saying, “This bodhisattva will become a buddha
with the name of Sakyamuni in the future, when the human life span is one
hundred years."

Not far to the south of the place where Sakya Bodhisattva received his
prediction is a site where the four past buddhas walked up and down. It is
over fifty paces long and about seven feet high, built of pilied-up bluestone,
on which there is an image of the Tathagata in the posture of walking. It is
unusually exquisite with an appearance of solemnity, and with a tuft of hair
specially growing on the fleshy protuberance. Its spiritual features are apparent
and its divine manifestation is testified. Inside the enclosure there are numerous
sacred sites and the temples and stupas number in the several hundreds. I
have only cited two or three of them; it is difficult for me to give a detailed
description of them all.

To the west of the enclosure of the monastery is a pond of pure water
more than two hundred paces in circuit in which the Tathagata often bathed.
Further to the west is another big pond, one hundred eighty paces in circuit,
where the Tathagata used to wash his almsbowl. Further to the north is a
pond one hundred fifty paces in circuit where the Tathagata used to wash his
robes. There are dragons living in all three ponds. The water is deep and
tastes sweet. It is clear and limpid, neither increasing nor decreasing. If one

173

906a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

washes in these ponds with an arrogant mind he will usually be harmed by
a kumbhira (crocodile), but it is safe for one to use the water with a mind of
deep respect. Beside the pond for washing robes is a big square rock on which
are the traces of the Tathagata's robes, with the lines as distinct as if they
were carved. Pure believers often come here to make offerings. If heretics
and evil people tread contemptuously on the rock the dragon king in the pond
raises a storm.

Not far from the pond is a stupa at the place where the Tathagata, in the
course of practicing the deeds of a bodhisattva, was a six-tusked elephant
king. A hunter who wished to obtain its tusks disguised himself in a monk's
robe and drew his bow to kill the elephant. Out of respect for the robe the
elephant king extracted its tusks and gave them to the hunter.

Not far from the place of the tusk extraction is a stupa at the place where the
Tathagata, in the course of practicing the deeds of a bodhisattva, manifested as
a bird. Out of pity for the lack of kindness in the world, he asked a monkey and
a white elephant which of them was the first to see the banyan tree [under which
they were sitting]. Each gave an account and, according to their statements,
who was senior and who was junior was established. Their influence gradually
spread far and near and the people began to know the order of superiority and
inferiority, and both monks and laypeople followed their example.

Not far away is a great forest in which there is a stupa at the spot where
in the past the Tathagata and Devadatta, both as deer kings, settled a dispute.
Formerly in this great forest there were two herds of deer, each of which had
more than five hundred animals. The king of this country once came to hunt
in the plain and marshland. The Bodhisattva deer king came forward and
said to the king, “Your Majesty is hunting with stout dogs in the plain, using
burning torches and flying arrows. All my followers will lose their lives this
morning and in a few days [their bodies] will become putrid and stinking
and will be unfit for food. I wish to supply you with a live deer every day in
rotation so that you may have fresh venison, and my followers will be able
to lengthen their lives to some extent." The king, pleased by these words,
turned back his carriage. Thus each of the two herds provided the king with
a deer on alternate days.

Now in the herd of [the deer king] Devadatta there was a pregnant doe.
When it was her turn to be killed she said to the king of her herd, “Although

174

Fascicle VII

it is my turn to die my child has nothing to do with this." The deer king Deva-
datta said angrily, “Who does not value his life?” The doe remarked, sighing,
*Our king is not kindly and I may die at any moment." So she asked for
emergency help from the Bodhisattva deer king. The Bodhisattva said, *How
compassionate is the mind of a benign mother, showing kindness to her child
that has not yet taken shape! I shall go in your place." Then he went to the
gate of the king's palace and the people in the street exclaimed, “The great
deer king has entered the town!" The officials and common people in the
capital rushed out to have a look. When the king heard about this he did not
believe it, but after the doorkeeper informed the king he understood that it
was true and said, “Deer king, why have you come here so abruptly?” The
deer said, “A doe was going to die in her turn but she is about to give birth
to a fawn, and I cannot bear the sight of her death. I venture to substitute
myself for her." Hearing this, the king said with a sigh, “Т am a human being
in form but I behave like a deer, and you are a deer yet you have the heart
of a human being!" The king then set free all the deer and asked for no more
sacrifices from them. The forest was allotted as a preserve for the deer and
therefore was called the Forest Given to the Deer; hence the name Deer Park.

Two or three /i to the southwest of the monastery is a stupa more than
three hundred feet high. The base of the stupa is broad and high and it is
adorned with rare and brilliant valuables. There are no niches arranged in
rows but instead a dome in the shape of an inverted almsbowl was constructed
on the base. Although a stone emblematic pillar was erected it has no deco-
rative wheels or bells. Beside it is a small stupa built at the place where the
five people, Ajfiata-Kaundinya and the others, gave up their restraint and greeted
the Buddha. When Prince Sarvarthasiddha (known as Yiqieyicheng, “Accom-
plishment of All Purposes" in Chinese, formerly called Xidaduo in erroneous
abbreviation) crossed over the city wall to live in seclusion in the mountains
and valleys, forgetting about himself to seek the Dharma, King Suddhodana
gave orders to three clanspeople and two relatives, saying, “My son Sarvarthasid-
dha has left home to pursue his studies and is traveling alone in the mountains
and marshlands, sojourning in woods and forests. I order you to follow him
so I will know where he is staying. Inwardly you are his paternal and maternal
uncles, but outwardly he is your lord and you are his subjects. You should
know what to do in whatever circumstances."

175

906b

906c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Under the king's order the five men served the prince as his guards, and
at the same time they also sought the way of emancipation. They often dis-
cussed among themselves whether they should cultivate the way to attain
liberation by practicing asceticism or by living in a pleasant manner. Two of
them said that one should cultivate the way in comfort, while the other three
held that one should cultivate the way in an arduous ascetic manner. They
argued about the matter without coming to a clear decision. The prince pon-
dered the ultimate truth and, in order to convince the heretics who led a life
of severe hardship, he took only gruel to sustain his life. Seeing this, the two
men said, “What the prince is doing is not the true Dharma. The way is some-
thing that should be realized in a comfortable manner. He is not of our group,
as he has taken to asceticism." So they deserted the prince and fled far away
with the intention of attaining the fruit of sainthood.

After practicing asceticism for six years the prince did not achieve enlight-
enment and, wishing to prove that asceticism was not the true method, he
accepted milk gruel and attained the fruit of sainthood. Hearing this, the three
men said with a sigh, “At the last moment to gain success he has retrogressed.
All the effort he put forth in practicing asceticism for six years is abandoned
in a single day." Then they went together to visit the two men [who had left
before]. When they saw one another, having seated themselves, they started
to talk bombastically, saying, “Formerly we saw that Prince Sarvarthasiddha
left the palace and went to the wilds; he took off his precious garments and
put on a deerskin, working hard and persevering to seek the deep and won-
derful Dharma wholeheartedly and painstakingly in order to win the supreme
fruit of sainthood. But now he has accepted milk gruel offered by some milk-
maids and is morally ruined, contrary to his original intention. We know all
about this but we could do nothing.” The two men said, “How is it that you
see it so late? He is merely a capricious person. When he was living in the
palace with honor and dignity he could not keep his mind in peace but went
far away to the forests, and he abandoned his position as universal monarch
to lead the life of a low and vulgar person. Why should we remember him?
The mention of him merely distresses us.”

After having bathed in the Nairafijana River, the Tathagata sat under the
bodhi tree and attained full enlightenment and the title Teacher of Gods and
Humans. He sat quietly, meditating on who should be converted by him,

176

Fascicle VII

thinking, *Udraka Ramaputra, who has achieved the mental state of no thought
and no non-thought (naivasamjfíasamjnanayatana), is competent to receive
the wonderful Dharma." The heavenly beings in the air said in reply, “Udraka
Ramaputra passed away seven days ago.” The Tathagata regretted that he
had not been able to meet that man who had died suddenly and so could not
hear the wonderful Dharma. He again observed the world in search of a suit-
able man and recollected Aradakalama, who had achieved the mental state
of nothingness (akifícanyayatana), to whom he should impart the ultimate
truth. The heavenly beings again said, “He has been dead five days.” The
Tathagata regretted once more and had pity on that man for not having had
the good luck to hear the Dharma. He again pondered the matter of to whom
he should impart his teachings and found that no others but the five men at
Deer Park should be taught first.

At that time the Tathagata rose from his seat under the bodhi tree and
repaired to Deer Park. His deportment was quiet and calm and he gave off
a dazzling divine light. His white eyebrows had the luster of jade and his
body was of the color of genuine gold. He proceeded with composure in
order to instruct the five men. When they saw the Tathagata coming from a
distance, they said among themselves, “The man who is coming is Sarvartha-
siddha. Even after such a long time he has not achieved the fruit of sainthood.
He must have given up what he expected in his mind and so he has come to
look for us. We should remain silent and not stand up to greet or salute him.”
As the Tathagata approached them his divine influence affected them all, and
the five men, forgetting their restraint, saluted him with greetings and waited
upon him, according to etiquette. The Tathagata gradually taught them the
ultimate truth and, at the conclusion of the summer retreat during the rainy
season, they attained the fruit of sainthood.

Going to the east of Deer Park for two or three /i, I came to a stupa, beside
which was a dried-up pond more than eighty paces in circumference with
the name “Life-saving Pond" or *Hero's Pond.” I heard the local people say
that several hundred years ago there was a hermit living in seclusion in a hut
beside the pond. He was learned in arts and crafts and had thoroughly mastered
the divine principles, and was able to turn rubble into gems and interchange
the forms of humans and animals. But he could not ride on the wind and
clouds to accompany the spirits, so he searched into ancient books for the

177

907a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

art of becoming a spirit. It was said in the method, “The art of the spirits is
the art of longevity. One who wishes to learn it should first of all make up
one's mind. An altar should be built more than ten feet in circumference.
Ask a hero of outstanding truthfulness and bravery to hold a long knife and
stand at a corner of the altar, holding his breath and keeping silent from dusk
to the next morning. One who seeks to be a spirit should sit at the center of
the altar while putting his hand on a long knife, repeating an incantation with
a concentrated mind, neither seeing nor hearing anything. Before dawn he
will become a spirit and the sharp knife will turn into a precious sword. He
will then be able to walk in the air to rule over the spirits. Wielding his sword
as a commander he will obtain whatever he desires and never become old
or feeble, or suffer illness or death."

Having acquired the method of becoming a spirit, the hermit began looking
for a hero but for a year he could not find a suitable person to his satisfaction.
Later, he met a man in the town wailing piteously as he walked along the road.
Seeing him, the hermit was pleased with his features and asked him sympa-
thetically why he was so sorrowful. The man said, “Т am a poor man and I
Worked as a servant to sustain myself. My employer was appreciative of my
ability and had confidence in me. He promised to pay me good wages if I
served him for five years. Thus I toiled diligently and ignored hardships. But
when the term of five years was nearly concluded I committed a fault, for
which not only was I shamefully flogged but I also lost my pay. This is why I
feel so sorrowful, and no one shows me sympathy."

The hermit asked the man to come with him to the hut and through magical
power he produced delicious food [to entertain him]. After that he invited
him to take a bath in the pond and clothed him in new garments. Then he
presented him with five hundred gold coins and said to him, “When you have
spent all the money come again to get more. Please don't make a stranger
of yourself." He presented rich gifts to the man on several occasions, with
the unspoken intention of winning his heart. The hero repeatedly offered to
render a service to the hermit as repayment for his kindness. The hermit said,
“T sought a hero for a year and I am lucky to have met you, as your features
answer the description of the ancient books. I shall not trouble you with any-
thing else but I do request that you keep silent for one night." The hero said,
“T am not afraid even of death, to say nothing of keeping silent.”

178

Fascicle VII

Then an altar was prepared for the performance of the rite of becoming
a spirit. They acted in accordance with the method and sat down to wait for
dusk. A fter dusk, each of them did his duty, the hermit repeating the incantation
while the hero held the sharp knife. At the approach of dawn [the hero] sud-
denly shrieked aloud and consequently a fire fell from the air and smoke and
flames covered the place like a cloud. The hermit hastily led the man to seek
refuge in the pond and asked him, “I told you to keep silent, so why did you
make such a shrill noise?" The hero said, “After receiving your instructions
I had a nightmare at midnight, in which many strange things appeared. I saw
my former employer coming to make a personal apology to me and, out of
my deep gratitude to you I refrained from speaking to him. Enraged, that
man killed me and I then existed in the state of intermediate existence between
death and reincarnation (antarabhava). I looked back at my own corpse with
a sigh of regret and, by way of repaying your deep kindness, I decided not
to speak a word in my future life. Then I saw I was reborn to a great brahman
family in South India and I never uttered a sound in the course of conception
and birth and other painful experiences, always bearing in mind the benefit
and kindnessyou extended to me. When I reached the age of schooling,
became an adult, got married, lost my parents, and begat a son, I always
remembered your kindness and refrained from speaking. All my clanspeople
and relatives wondered about me. When I was over sixty-five years old my
wife said to me, ‘You must speak now, otherwise I will kill your son!’ Con-
sidering that I was getting old in my second life and had only one child, I
stopped my wife from killing him, and thus I uttered that sound." The hermit
said, "It is my fault; it is a mischief caused by a demon." With a feeling of
gratitude and regretful for the failure of the event, the hero died of chagrin.
Because the pond prevented the calamity of a conflagration it is called Life-
saving Pond and, as the hero died there, it 1s also called Hero's Pond.

To the west of Hero's Pond is a stupa built in memory of three animals
at the spot where the Tathagata, in the course of practicing the deeds of a
bodhisattva, burned himself. At the beginning of the present kalpa there were
three animals, a fox, a hare, and an ape, who lived harmoniously together in
this wild forest. At that time Indra wished to test the one who was cultivating
the bodhisattva deeds and transformed himself into an old man. He said to
the three animals, “Are the three of you living in peace and without fear?"

179

907b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The animals said, “We tread on rich grass and frolic in the luxuriant wood.
Although we are of different species we enjoy ourselves in both safety and
happiness." The old man said, “Т have heard that the three of you are good
friends and on intimate terms, so I have come from afar to look for you
despite my old age and fatigue. Now I am hungry; what can you give me to
eat?" The animals said, “Please wait a moment. We shall go get something
for you."

So each modestly went away on different paths with the same purpose of
seeking for some edibles. The fox caught a carp by the riverside, while the
ape plucked some strange flowers and fruit in the wood. They came back
together to offer their findings to the old man, but the hare returned empty-
handed, frisking about the old man.

The old man said, “As far as I can see you are not living in harmony. The
ape and fox had the same purpose and worked with one mind, but the hare
came back empty-handed and has nothing to give me. From this I can under-
stand the situation." Having heard this derisive remark, the hare said to the
fox and ape, “Gather a large amount of firewood; I am going to do something."
The fox and ape went speedily to gather hay and haul wood, and when they
had piled up a huge heap of fuel it was ignited into raging flames. The hare
said, “Kind sir, I am a lower creature and could not get what I wished for. I
venture to offer my humble body to be served as a meal to you." Having said
this, the hare jumped into the fire and died in the flames.

At that time the old man resumed his form as Indra and collected the ashes
of the hare from among the embers with a long sigh of regret. Then he said
to the fox and ape, "Since the event has turned out as it has, I am deeply
moved by the hare's good-heartedness and I shall perpetuate its good deed
by sending it to the moon to be known to posterity.” Therefore the local
people say that since then a hare has appeared in the moon. People of later
times built a stupa at this place.

From here going east along the Ganges for more than three hundred /;, I reached
the country of Garjanapati (in the domain of Central India). Garjanapati is
more than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, which borders the
Ganges River, is more than ten /i in circuit. The inhabitants are rich and
happy and the towns and villages are close to one another. The soil is fertile

180

Fascicle VII

and farming is done in accordance with the seasons. The climate is temperate
and the people are simple and honest by social custom and rustic and intrepid
by nature. They believe in both the wrong and the right religions. There are
over ten monasteries with less than one thousand monks, all of whom follow
the Hinayana teachings. Deva temples amount to twenty and followers of
the different faiths live together.

In a monastery to the northwest of the great city there is a stupa built by
King A$oka. It is said in the Record of India that one liter of the Tathagata's
relic bones is preserved in this stupa. In olden times the Tathagata preached
the wonderful Dharma to an assembly of devas and humans for seven days
at this place. Beside it are sites where the three past buddhas sat and walked
up and down. In the vicinity of these sites 1s a statue of Maitreya Bodhisattva.
Although small in size its divine power is manifest. It has latent spirituality
and works miracles from time to time.

Going eastward from the great city for more than two hundred Ji, I reached
Aviddhakarna (known as Buchuaner, “Unpierced Ears,” in Chinese)
Monastery. The surrounding wall is not extensive but the decorative sculptures
are very exquisite. The flowers are reflected in the ponds and the terraces
and the ridges of the pavilions are close to one another. The monks are quiet
and solemn in deportment and the community lives in an orderly manner. I
heard some elderly people say that formerly in the country of Tukhara, to the
north of the Himalayas, there were two or three sramanas who took delight
in learning and often talked together at leisure times after having done religious
service and recitation, saying, “The wonderful principles and abstruse theories
cannot be thoroughly mastered through empty words, but the holy sites are
obvious and discernible and can be visited by making the journey on foot.
We should inquire of some close friends about the matter and go visit the holy
sites in person." So the two or three friends, holding their pewter staffs in
hand, started the journey together. When they arrived in India they sought out
lodgings in a monastery, but the local monks despised them as frontiersmen
and refused to give them accommodation. As they had to stay out in the open
air, tired and hungry, they became thin and pallid and looked haggard. At that
time the king of that country, on a pleasure trip in the suburbs, saw the visiting
monks. He asked them with amazement, *Mendicants, from where and why

181

907c

908a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

did you come here? Your ears are not pierced and you are dressed in such
dirty and shabby robes.” The sramanas said in reply, “We are from the country
of Tukhara. We respectfully follow the teachings of the Buddha and left the
world [to live as monks]. By our common wish we have come to pay homage
to the holy sites. But it is regrettable to say that, due to our deficiency in
blessedness, the Indian monks do not attend to us wayfarers. As we have not
completed our pilgrimage we wish to return to our native land, so we will
endure hardships and go home after our desire is fulfilled.”

Upon hearing these words the king felt pity for the travelers and constructed
a monastery at this superior place. He wrote down a rule on a piece of white
cotton that said, “It is due to the spiritual protection of the Triple Gem that
I am the most honored person in the world and the noblest in rank among
all people. Since I am a king of people and the Buddha has entrusted me [to
take care of the religion], I shall extend help to all monks in distress. This
monastery has been constructed exclusively for the entertainment of traveling
monks, and no monks with pierced ears shall stay in this monastery of mine
in the future." It is on account of this event that the monastery is called
“Unpierced Ears.”

Going southeast for more than one hundred /i from Aviddhakarna
Monastery, crossing the Ganges River to the south, I reached the town of
Mahasala. All the inhabitants are brahmans by caste and they do not follow
the buddha-dharma. When they meet Buddhist monks they inquire about
their learning, and if they find that the monks are learned they salute them
with deep respect.

Atthe north of the Ganges there is a Narayana temple consisting of storied
pavilions and terraces arranged in tiers, all beautifully decorated. The statues
of various devas are carved from stone with the most exquisite craftsmanship.
Their spiritual efficacy is difficult for me to describe in detail.

More than thirty /i to the east of the Narayana temple is a stupa built by
King A$oka. A large part of it has collapsed into the ground and in front there
Is a stone pillar more than twenty feet high with the figure of a lion on top.
Inscribed on the pillar 1s a record of the event of subduing demons. Formerly
there were some demons of the wilderness at this place who, relying on their
strength, ate human flesh and blood, doing harm to living creatures in a most
evil and monstrous manner. Out of compassion for the living beings who

182

Fascicle VII

would die violent deaths, the Tathagata, through his supernatural powers,
induced the demons to take refuge [in the Triple Gem] with veneration and
taught them to observe the precept of non-killing. The demons accepted the
Buddha's teachings and circumambulated him with respect. Then they raised
a rock for the Buddha to sit on and wished to hear [him teach] the right
Dharma, which they protected wholeheartedly. Afterward, people who did
not believe in the buddha-dharma tried to push and remove the rock seat set
up by the demons but they could not move it, even though they numbered
in the thousands. Around the base of the rock there are luxuriant trees and
ponds of clear water and anyone who comes near the place is awestruck.

Not far from [the stupa of] subduing demons there are several monasteries.
Although they are mostly dilapidated there are still monks [living in them],
all of whom study and follow the Mahayana teachings.

Going from here to the southeast for over one hundred /i, I came to a
stupa of which the base has slanted and sunk to one side; the remaining part
of it is a few scores of feet in height. When the Tathagata entered nirvana
and the great kings of eight countries divided his relics, the brahman who
measured the relics smeared the inside of the measuring bottle with honey,
from which he made allotments for the kings. The brahman returned with
the bottle and, having obtained the relics that stuck to the inside of the meas-
uring bottle, he built this stupa and enshrined the bottle in it. Hence it 1s
called [Relic Bottle Stupa]. Afterward King Asoka opened the stupa and
took out the relic bottle, for which he constructed a great stupa. On fast days
it often emits a brilliant light.

Crossing the Ganges at the northeast of this place and going for one hundred
forty or fifty li, I reached the country of Vaisali (formerly mistranscribed as
Pisheli, in the domain of Central India).

The country of Vaisali is more than five thousand /i in circuit. The soil is
fertile and there is an abundance of flowers and fruit; mango and plantain
are plentiful and valuable. The climate is temperate and the people are simple
and honest by social custom. They take delight in doing good works and
attach importance to learning, and believe in both heterodox and orthodox
doctrines. There are several hundred monasteries, most of which are in ruins,
with the exception of a few that remain intact and house a few monks. There

183

908b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

are several tens of deva temples and the heretics live together. The sect of
the naked adherents flourishes here.

The city wall of the capital of Vaisali has badly collapsed and the original
base of the wall is sixty or seventy /i in circuit, while the palace city 15 four
or five li in circuit; there are few inhabitants. Five or six /i to the northwest
of the palace city is a monastery with very few monks, who study the teachings
of the Hinayana Sammitiya school. Beside the monastery is a stupa at the
place where the Tathagata delivered the Vimalakirtinirdesa-siitra, and Ratna-
kara, the son of an elder, and others offered a sunshade to him. To the east
is a stupa at the place where Sariputra and others attained arhatship.

To the southeast of the stupa where Sariputra attained arhatship is another
stupa constructed by the king of Vaisalt. After the Buddha's nirvana a former
king of this country obtained a portion of the Buddha's relic bones, for which
he respectfully constructed this stupa. It is said in the Record of India that
there was originally one Ли of the Tathagata's relics preserved in this stupa,
but King A$oka opened it and took out nine dou of the relics, leaving only
one dou in the stupa. Later, another king wished to open the stupa again to
get the remaining relics but just as he had just started to do the work there
was an earthquake, so he dared not open the stupa.

To the northwest is another stupa built by King Asoka, and beside it is a
stone pillar fifty or sixty feet tall with the figure of a lion on top. To the south
of the stone pillar is a tank that was dug by a group of monkeys for the Buddha,
as he once lived at this place in the old days. Not far to the west of the tank
is a stupa at the place where the monkeys took the Tathagata’s almsbowl and
climbed into a tree to gather honey. Not far to the south of the tank is a stupa
at the place where the monkeys offered the honey to the Buddha. Some figures
of monkeys are still preserved at the northwest corner of the tank.

Three or four /i to the northeast of the monastery is a stupa built on the
foundation of the old residence of Vimalakirti (known as “Stainless Repu-
tation" in Chinese, formerly translated as “Pure Name." However, “pure”
means "stainless" and “name” is equivalent to "reputation." Although the
meaning is the same the name is translated in different ways. Formerly it
was wrongly transcribed as Weimojie). The stupa often reveals spiritual man-
ifestations. Not far from here is a deity's house, which appears to be built
out of piled-up bricks, but according to tradition it was made out of stone.

184

Fascicle VII

This was the place where Vimalakirti pretended to be ill and preached the
Dharma. Not far from here is a stupa built at the place of the old house of
Ratnakara, the son of an elder. Not far from here is a stupa built at the place
of the old house of the woman Amra[pali]. The Buddha’s aunt and other
bhiksunis realized nirvana at this place.

Three or four li to the north of the monastery is a stupa at the place where
human and nonhuman beings stood and waited while following the Tathagata,
who was proceeding to the country of Kusinagara to enter parinirvana. Next,
not far to the northwest, 1s another stupa at the place where the Buddha
stopped and took a last look at the city of Vaišalt. Not far to the south of this
stupa is a temple, in front of which is a stupa at the place where Amra[pali]
offered her garden to the Buddha.

Beside Amra[pali] Garden is a stupa at the place where the Tathagata
announced the time of his nirvana. Formerly the Buddha told Ananda at this
place, “One who has achieved the four constituent parts of supernatural power
can live for one kalpa. Now how long should the Tathagata live?" He repeated
the question three times but Ananda, having been stupefied by Mara, remained
silent and, rising from his seat, he went to sit quietly in the wood. At this
moment Mara came to the Buddha and said to him, “The Tathagata has been
edifying the people in the world for a long time and those who have been
saved by you from the round of rebirth are as numerous as grains of dust and
sand. It is now the time for you to enjoy the bliss of nirvana." The World-
honored One then took up a pinch of soil with his nail and said to Mara,
“Which is more, the amount of soil on the earth, or that on my fingernail?"
Mara said in reply, “There is more soil on the earth." The Buddha said, “Those
I have converted may be compared to the amount of soil on my nail, while
those not yet converted are as numerous as the amount of soil of the great
earth. Nonetheless, I shall enter nirvana in three months." On hearing this,
Mara was pleased and departed.

In the wood Ananda had a strange dream and he came to tell the Buddha,
saying, "In the wood I dreamed that a big tree with luxuriant branches and
leaves, casting a dense shade, suddenly fell down in a gale. Does this indicate
that the World-honored One intends to enter nirvana? My heart is full of fear
so I have come to make this inquiry.” The Buddha said to Ananda, “I told
you previously but you were stupefied by Mara and you did not promptly

185

908c

909a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

invite me to stay [in the world]. Mara urged me to enter nirvana soon and I
have given him the date. That is what your dream presaged."

Not far from the place where the Buddha announced the time of his entering
nirvana is a stupa at the spot where one thousand sons saw their parents. For-
merly a rsi lived in seclusion in a rocky valley. One day in mid-spring he
was rowing a boat in a clear stream, and a doe followed him to drink water.
Through inspiration the doe gave birth to a girl, who was exceedingly beautiful
but had feet similar to the hooves of a deer. Seeing the girl, the rsi took her
in and brought her up. Later, when she was asked to go get some live coals
from another rsi's hermitage, her steps left traces of lotus flowers on the
ground. The other rsi was deeply surprised by the sight and asked the girl to
walk around his hermitage before she would be allowed to get the fire. The
deer girl did so, then obtained the fire and returned home. At that time King
Brahmananda was on a hunting expedition and saw the flower traces. Fol-
lowing the traces, he found the girl. Pleased by her unusual appearance, the
king carried her back in his carriage. A physiognomist foretold that she would
give birth to one thousand sons. When the other ladies [1n the harem] heard
the prediction they contrived to take action against her. At the end of her
period of gestation she gave birth to a lotus flower with one thousand leaves,
with one son sitting on each of the leaves. The other ladies criticized her,
and saying that it was an inauspicious object they threw it into the Ganges
River to be carried away by the current. King Ujjayana, out on a sightseeing
trip in the lower reaches of the river, saw a yellow canopy, embroidered with
a pattern of clouds, flowing down the river. He took it up and found one thou-
sand sons wrapped in it. He fed them with milk and raised them into men of
great strength. With the help of these one thousand sons the king expanded
his kingdom to the four quarters and he was about to encroach on this country
with his triumphant army. When King Brahmananda heard the news he was
shocked and fearful, and knowing his troops were not strong enough to offer
resistance, he was at his wits’ end.

At that time the deer woman, knowing that the invaders were her sons,
said to King [Brahmananda], “Now the invaders are approaching our territory
and have caused disunity among us. I, your unworthy wife, with a mind of
loyalty, can defeat these strong enemies." But the king did not believe her
and she was deeply worried and fearful. Then the deer woman went up to

186

Fascicle VII

the tower of the city gate to wait for the arrival of the invaders. Her one thou-
sand sons, commanding their troops, besieged the city. The deer woman told
them, *Do not do unfilial things! I am your mother and you are my sons."
The one thousand sons said, *How absurd are your words!" But the deer
woman pressed her breasts and milk flowed out and forked into one thousand
streams and, because of the ties of consanguinity, the milk flowed into the
mouths of the one thousand sons. Recognizing their mother, they took off
their armor and, after disbanding their troops, they returned to their own
country. The two countries restored friendly relations and the people lived
in peace and happiness.

Not far from the place where the one thousand sons recognized their
mother is a stupa at the old site where the Tathagata walked up and down,
while he pointed at the place and told the assembly, “Formerly at this place
I recognized my mother. If you wish to know who were the thousand sons,
they are the one thousand buddhas of the bhadrakalpa.”

To the east of the place where [the Buddha] related his past life is an old
foundation on which there is a stupa that often emits a brilliant light and
sometimes answers the entreaties of prayers. This is the remnant site of the
storied lecture hall in which the Tathagata delivered the Samantamukha-
dharani and other sutras.

Not far from the lecture hall is a stupa in which are preserved the remains
of half of Ananda’s body. Not far from this stupa there are several hundred
stupas, whose exact number is unknown; this is the place where one thousand
pratyekabuddhas entered nirvana. There are numerous holy sites in and
around the city of Vaisalt and it is difficult to describe them all in detail. The
old ruins at commanding positions stand with each other like the scales of a
fish, but through the passage of time and the change of hot and cold seasons
the woods have withered away and the ponds have dried up, leaving behind
decayed trees to bear testimony [to past glories].

Going to the northwest for fifty or sixty /i from the great city, I reached
a great stupa at the place where the Licchavis (formerly mistranscribed as
Lichezi) bade farewell to the Tathagata. When the Tathagata was proceeding
to the country of Kusinagara from the city of Vaisalt, the Licchavis, having
heard that the Buddha was about to enter nirvana, went to see him off, wailing
piteously. Seeing that their sorrow was so deep as to be inconsolable by

187

909b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

words, the World-honored One produced through his supernatural powers a
big river with steep banks and a rapid current. The Licchavis, crying bitterly,
were thus prevented from following him any further. The Tathagata left his
almsbowl as a memento for them.

Less than two hundred /i to the northwest of the city of Vaisali is an old
city that has been desolate for many years and has few inhabitants. In the
city there is a stupa at the place where the Buddha told an assembly of various
bodhisattvas and human and heavenly beings about cultivating bodhisattva
deeds in his past lives. He was once a universal monarch named Mahadeva
(known as Datian, “Great Deity," in Chinese), in this city, possessing the
seven treasures and competently ruling over the four continents of the world.
But after witnessing the phenomenon of changeability and realizing the prin-
ciple of impermanence, he cherished a high ambition and renounced the
throne. He abandoned his country to become a monk and donned the dyed
robe to pursue learning.

Going southeast for fourteen or fifteen /i from the city, I reached a great
stupa at the place where seven hundred sages and saints convened the Second
Council. One hundred and ten years after the Buddha's nirvana, some bhiksus
in the city of Vaisalt deviated from the buddha-dharma and observed the
disciplinary rules in an erroneous way. At that time Elder Үаѕойа was residing
in Kosala, Elder Sambhoga in Mathura, Elder Revata in Hanruo, Elder Salha
in Vaisalt, and Elder Kubjasobhita in Pataliputra. All these great arhats had
gained mental liberation, mastered the Tripitaka, and possessed the three
clear insights; they had great reputations and were well known to all as dis-
ciples of Venerable Ananda. At that time Yasoda sent a messenger to invite
various sages and saints to meet in the city of Vaisali. The number of those
who attended the meeting amounted to seven hundred less one. Kubjasobhita
then saw with his clairvoyance that various sages and saints were assembled
to discuss matters concerning the Dharma and he came to the assembly
through his supernatural power of ubiquity. Sambhoga, his right shoulder
uncovered, knelt on the ground and said to the council, “Be quiet! Consider
with respect! Although the great holy King of the Dharma entered nirvana
as an expedient many years ago, his oral teachings still exist. Some negligent
bhiksus in the city of Vai$ali observe the disciplinary rules erroneously and
have raised ten points that are contrary to the teachings of the Buddha who

188

Fascicle VII

possessed the ten powers. Now you sages are conversant with the [proper]
observance and violation of the disciplinary rules, and all of you have studied
under the instruction of Bhadanta Ananda. For the sake of repaying the
Buddha's kindness you should reiterate his holy decrees." No one among
the great saints was not moved to tears. They summoned the faulty bhiksus
and, in accordance with the Vinaya regulations, they reproached them and
stopped their misdeeds. Thus the wrong practices ended and the holy teach-
ings were clarified.

Going south for eighty or ninety /i from the place where the seven hundred
sages and saints held a meeting, I came to Svetapura Monastery, which con-
sisted of many lofty buildings and magnificent pavilions. The monks are
pure and solemn in manner and they all study Mahayana teachings. Beside
it are old sites where the four past buddhas sat and walked up and down. The
stupa beside it was built by King Asoka at the place where the Tathagata
halted to rest on his way to the country of Magadha in the south and looked
back at the city of Vaisalt in the north.

More than thirty li away to the south of Svetapura Monastery there are
two stupas, one built on the southern bank and the other on the northern bank
of the Ganges River. This was the place where Venerable Ananda divided
his bodily relics between two countries. Ananda was a cousin of the Tathagata
and was a man of wide learning and comprehensive intelligence who had an
extensive range of knowledge and a retentive memory. After the Buddha’s
demise he succeeded Mahakasyapa in upholding the right Dharma and guiding
the learners. Once, when he was taking a walk in a wood in the country of
Magadha, he saw a novice reciting the scriptures incorrectly, with passages
and sentences in disorder and the wording in confusion. Having heard the
recitation, Ananda recalled the Buddha with a deep feeling of sorrow and
went slowly to the novice to point out his mistakes. The novice said with a
smile, “Great Virtuous One, you have become senile and whatb you say is
wrong. My teacher is a wise man in the prime of life. I have personally learned
from him and there is no mistake in his instructions.”

Ananda withdrew quietly with a sigh, saying, “Even though I am getting
old I still wish to live longer to uphold the right Dharma for the benefit of
living beings. But living beings are laden with defilement and are difficult to
admonish. It is useless for me to live any longer. I will quickly enter nirvana.”

189

909c

910a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Then he left the country of Magadha for the city of Vaisali. While Ananda
was crossing the Ganges in a boat, sailing midstream, the king of Magadha
heard that Ananda was going away and, out of deep affection and in admi-
ration of his virtue, he urgently dispatched his military carriages to go quickly
in pursuit of him. Hundreds and thousands of troops camped on the southern
bank. [At the same time] the king of Vaisali, feeling both grief and joy at
the news that Ananda was coming [to his country to enter nirvana], also
sent his troops to march speedily to welcome him. Hundreds and thousands
of soldiers were stationed on the northern bank. The two armies faced each
other and [their flags were so numerous that they] obscured the sun. Fearing
that they might start a war and kill each other, Ananda ascended into the air
from the boat and entered nirvana amid the manifestation of supernatural
powers. A fire burned his body, which fell down in two parts, one dropping
on the southern bank and the other on the northern bank. So each of the two
kings obtained a portion of the relics, as their armies wept sorrowfully. After
returning to their respective countries they erected stupas to pay homage to
the relics.

Going from here to the northeast for more than five hundred /i, I reached the
country of Vrji (called by the northerners the country of Samvrji, in the
domain of North India). The country of Vrji is more than four thousand /i in
circuit, long from east to west and narrow from south to north. The soil is
fertile and abounds in flowers and fruit. The climate is somewhat cold and
the people are impetuous by nature. Most of them venerate the heretics and
a few believe in the buddha-dharma. There are over ten monasteries with
less than a thousand monks, who study both the Mahayana and Hinayana
teachings. There are several tens of deva temples with a great number of
heretics. The capital city of the country is called Cañšuma, of which the
greater part is in ruins. Inside the old palace city there are still more than
three thousand families of inhabitants living together like in a village or town.

To the northeast of a big river there is a monastery with a few monks who
are pure and lofty in learning. West of here there is a stupa more than thirty
feet high on the bank of the river, which flows like a belt to the south. This
was the place where with his great compassion the Buddha once converted
some fishermen. In the distant past, at the time of the Buddha, there were

190

Fascicle VII

five hundred fishermen who worked in groups to catch fish. One day they
caught in this river a large fish with eighteen heads, each having two eyes.
As the fishermen were getting ready to kill the fish the Tathagata, in the
country of Vaisali, saw it with his divine eye and felt pity for it. He intended
to take this opportunity to edify the fish and to enlighten the fishermen at the
same time. He told the assembly of monks, “In the country of Vrji there is
a big fish that I intend to convert so as to enlighten the fishermen. You should
know that it is now time to do so."

Then the Buddha, surrounded by the assembly of monks, ascended into
the air through his power of divine feet and flew to the riverside. He laid
down his sitting cloth as usual and said to the fishermen, “Do not kill the
fish!” Through his supernatural power and in an expedient way, he endowed
the big fish with the faculties of knowing its previous life, speaking human
language, and understanding human sentiment. Then the Tathagata purposely
asked the fish, though he alreday knew the answer, “What sins did you commit
in your previous life so that you are now in an evil state of rebirth with such
an unfortunate form?" The fish said, “By the effect of good deeds I had done
in a former life I was born to a noble family and I was known as the great
brahman Kapittha in my previous life. Due to the influence of my caste, I
despised and bullied other people and, considering myself learned, I scorned
the scriptures and the Dharma. I disrespectfully slandered the buddhas and
reproached the monks with abusive language, comparing them to camels,
donkeys, elephants, horses, and other ugly animals. Because of these evil
deeds I am now suffering in this unfortunate form. But because I did some
good deeds in one of my former lives I have been born at a time when a
buddha is in the world, and I have now seen the holy Buddha himself with
my own eyes and have heard his holy teachings." Then [the fish] made a
confession and repented his evil deeds done in the past.

The Tathagata taught the fish in accordance with its capacity and enlight-
ened it as was suitable to the occasion. After hearing the Dharma, the fish
died and was reborn in heaven through the power of its good deeds. Then
he looked at his own celestial body and wondered why he had been born in
heaven. After recalling his past life, he remembered the Buddha with gratitude
and came with other heavenly beings to see him. Having worshiped the
Buddha, he circumambulated him and stood aside to offer him valuables and

191

910b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

fragrant flowers brought from heaven. The World-honored One related this
anecdote to the fishermen, while pointing at the heavenly beings, and preached
the wonderful Dharma to them. They were moved and awakened [from igno-
rance] and sincerely worshiped the Buddha with repentance, tore up their
fishing nets, and burned their boats. They turned their minds to truth and
embraced the Dharma. After donning the dyed robes of monks and having
heard the ultimate teachings, all of them got rid of defilement and attained
the fruit of sainthood.

More than one hundred /i to the northeast of the place where the fishermen
were converted there is a stupa over one hundred feet high built by King
A$oka to the west of an old city. This was the place where the Buddha once
preached the Dharma for six months to convert celestial and human beings.
At a distance of one hundred forty or fifty paces to the north of this stupa
there is a smaller stupa marking the place where the Tathagata laid down the
disciplinary rules for the bhiksus. Not far to the west there is another stupa,
in which are enshrined the Tathagata's hair and nail relics. People coming
far and near converge at this place to burn incense, scatter flowers, and light
lamps and candles without interruption.

Going from here to the northwest for one thousand four hundred or five hun-
dred /i, crossing over mountains and passing through valleys, I reached the
country of Nepala (in the domain of Central India). The country of Nepala
is over four thousand /i in circuit and it is situated among the Snow Mountains.
The capital city of the country is more than twenty /i in circuit and there are
hills and valleys in close connection. The soil is suitable for growing cereals
and yields many flowers and fruit. The country produces red copper, yaks,
and jivamjivas (two-headed birds). Red copper coins are used as the medium
of exchange. The climate is piercingly cold. The people are sinister and iniq-
uitous by social custom and are rude and unrestrained by nature and disparage
good faith and righteousness. They have no learning but are skillful in crafts-
manship. They are ugly in appearance and believe in both wrong and right
doctrines. The monasteries and deva temples are so close together that they
touch each other and there are more than two thousand monks, who study
both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings; the number of heretics is unknown.
The king, being a Licchavi of the ksatriya caste, is an upright man with good

192

Fascicle VII

learning and is a pure Buddhist. In recent years there was a king named
Am$uvarman (known as Guangzhou, “Brilliant Helmet,” in Chinese), a
learned scholar of intelligence and sagacity, who wrote a treatise on sabdavidya
(Sanskrit grammar). He esteemed learning and honored the virtuous, and his
fame spread far and near.

To the southeast of the capital city there is a small pool. When fire is
thrown into it the water burns, and when other things are cast into it they
also become fiery.

From here I returned to the country of Vaisali and, crossing the Ganges River
to the south, I reached the country of Magadha (formerly mistranscribed as
Mojiatuo or Mojieti, in the domain of Central India).

End of Fascicle VII of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

193

Fascicle VIII

The Country of Magadha
(Part 1)

The country of Magadha is more than five thousand /i in circuit and the capital
city is sparsely populated, while in the towns there are many registered fam-
ilies. The soil is fertile and good for farming. There is a special kind of rice
of large grain with an unusual fragrance, whose luster and color are extraor-
dinary. The people call it the rice for great personages. The land is low and
humid and the towns are located on tablelands. A fter the beginning of summer
and before mid-autumn the plains are flooded and boats can be used. The
people are simple and honest by social custom and the climate is moderately
hot. The inhabitants esteem learning and revere the buddha-dharma. There
are over fifty monasteries with more than ten thousand monks, most of whom
study Mahayana teachings. There are several tens of deva temples with numer-
ous heretics.

To the south of the Ganges River there is an old city over seventy /i in
circuit. Although it has been deserted for a long time the old foundations are
still there. In the past, when the human life span was innumerable years, this
city was called Kusumapura (known as Xianghuagongcheng, “Palace City
of Fragrant Flowers,” in Chinese). The royal city was full of flowers, hence
the name of the city. Later on, when the human life span was several thousand
years, the name was changed to the city of Pataliputra (formerly mistranscribed
as the city of Balianfu).

There was once a learned brahman of high talent who had several thousand
disciples studying under him. Some of the disciples went out together on a
pleasure trip. One of them paced up and down in a melancholy mood and
his companions asked him why he was so sad. He said, “I am in the prime
of life yet I am still a vagabond, with only my shadow to accompany me,
and, moreover, even though a long time has passed I have not made any
achievement in learning. On account of this, my mind is heavily laden with

195

910c

911a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

sorrow." His schoolmates said to him in jest, “In that case we shall now
arrange a ceremony for you to get married." They then chose two people to
act as the parents of the bridegroom and two people as the parents of the
bride. The young man was then made to sit under a patali tree, which was
thus called the Tree of the Son-in-Law. Seasonal fruit was gathered and pure
water was served as wine to make a wedding feast to celebrate the nuptials.
The mock father of the imaginary bride broke off a branch of the tree and
handed it to the young scholar, saying, “This is your good spouse. I hope
you will not refuse the offer." The scholar was happy and satisfied. When it
was time for the party to return home at dusk the young man did not wish
to leave the place and wanted to stay behind. The other disciples said to him,
“We were merely making a mock ceremony. Please return home with us now,
lest the fierce animals in the woods hurt you."

The scholar lingered at the place and walked about the tree. After sunset
a strange light shone brightly in the wilderness and elegant music from wind
and stringed instruments was heard. A row of tents was pitched and in a
moment an old man, holding a staff, came to extend greetings to him. There
was also an old woman approaching with a maiden, followed by a large num-
ber of splendidly dressed attendants amid the sound of music. The old man
said to him, while pointing at the maiden, “This is your wife." The wedding
festivities lasted seven days.

The other disciples, concerned that the scholar might be killed by wild
animals, came to look for him. Then they saw him sitting alone under the
shade of the tree, as 1f he were accompanying some guests of honor. They
asked him to return with them but he refused. Some time later he entered the
city by himself to see his relatives and friends and told them what had hap-
pened to him. Those who heard the story were amazed. His friends went with
him to the woods, where they saw a great mansion at the place of the flowering
tree, with servants and slaves busily walking about. The old man received
them politely and prepared a feast, along with a performance of music to
entertain them, according to the etiquette between hosts and guests. When
they returned to the city they told everything to people far and near.

After a year a son was born to the couple and the young scholar said to
his wife, *I wish to go home but I cannot bear leaving you behind. If I remain
here I will always make my lodging in the open wilderness." Having heard

196

Fascicle VIII

this, his wife told it to her father, the old man, who said to the young scholar,
*For the enjoyment of life one need not go back to one's native place. I shall
build you a palace. Do not think otherwise." Through the labor of spirits the
palace was promptly completed. The old City of Fragrant Flowers was shifted
to this place and, as the city had been constructed by spirits for the [infant]
son, it was called the City of the Son of Patali (Pataliputra).

To the north of the old royal city there is a stone pillar several tens of feet
in height, erected at the place where King A$oka made a hell. In the one-
hundredth year after the nirvana of Sakya Tathagata, King Asoka (known as
Wuyou, “Not Feeling Sorrow,” in Chinese, formerly mistranscribed as Ayu),
the great-grandson of King Bimbisara (known as Yingjian, “Hard Shadow,”
in Chinese, formerly mistranscribed as Pinpisuo), moved his capital from
the city of Rajagrha to Pataliputra. After the long passage of time only some
old foundations still survive. Of the monasteries, deva temples, and stupas,
there are several hundred remnant sites lying in ruins; only two or three
remain intact. Only in a small city situated to the north of the old palace and
on the banks of the Ganges are there over a thousand households.

When King Asoka first succeeded to the throne he was cruel and practiced
tyranny. He established a hell to torture people, surrounded by lofty walls
with watchtowers at the corners. Great furnaces of fierce fire and cutters with
sharp points and keen edges, as well as other instruments of torture, were
prepared in imitation of the hells and a savage and cruel man was appointed
to be the jailer. At first it was used for punishing all sorts of criminals of the
country, regardless of the nature of their misdeeds. Later on all casual
passersby were captured and put to death and all who had entered the hell
were killed to prevent the secret from leaking out.

A newly admitted sramana once came to the gate of the hell in the course
of making his almsround. The cruel jailer caught him and intended to kill
him. Terror-stricken, the sramana asked permission to perform a confessional
ceremony [before death]. He immediately saw a man who had been bound
and sent into the hell, where he was dismembered and cut into pieces. Presently
the broken body became rotten and decayed. The sramana was deeply touched
by the sight and he gained the insight of impermanence and realized arhatship.
The jailer said to him, "It is now time for you to die." Having achieved the
fruit of sainthood the sramana had no discrimination between life and death.

197

911b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Even though he was thrown into a cauldron of boiling water it was just as if [he
was] in a pond of cool water and a huge lotus flower sprang up for his seat. The
jailer was surprised by the unusual spectacle and hurried to inform the king,
who came to see the sight for himself and highly praised the spiritual protection.
Then the jailer said, “Your Majesty must die." “Why?” said the king. The jailer
replied, “Your Majesty previously issued an order as a rule of the hell that who-
ever has entered the enclosure of the hell must be killed, and it did not say that
the king should be excepted from the regulation." The king said, “Once a law
is adopted it should not be altered. But did I make an exception for you when
I laid down the rule? It is my fault that you have lived until now.” He then
ordered the lictors to cast the jailer into the big furnace and after the jailer’s
death the king came out of the hell. He demolished the walls, filled up the
trenches, abolished the hell, and thereafter showed leniency toward criminals.

Not far to the south of the hell there is a stupa whose foundation has col-
lapsed on one side so that it has the shape of an overturned almsbowl. It is
decorated with gems and has stone balustrades. As it is one of the eighty-
four thousand stupas built by King Asoka it was constructed by human labor
in his palace. Inside it one dou of the Tathagata’s relic bones is preserved,
and they occasionally show spiritual manifestations and issue a divine light
from time to time.

Having abolished the hell, King ASoka met the great arhat Upagupta, who
instructed him according to his capacity in an appropriate way. The king said
to the arhat, “I am lucky to be a lord of humans as a result of good deeds I
have done in the past, but because of my spiritual hindrances I regretfully
have not received edification from the Buddha. Now I wish to construct
stupas for the veneration of the Tathagata’s relic bones.” The arhat said,
“With your power of bliss and virtue you can command various deities to
work for you. It is my wish that you should protect the Triple Gem with great
determination. Now is the time for you to do so.” Then the arhat told the
king in detail about the latter’s cause of offering a handful of earth [to the
Buddha in a previous life] and about the merits of building stupas as predicted
by the Tathagata.

King Asoka was pleased to hear the prediction. He summoned the spirits
and deities and issued an order, saying, “The King of the Dharma has
instructed living beings for their happiness and, due to my good deeds done

198

Fascicle VIII

in the past, I am now the most honored person among humankind. In order
to venerate the Tathagata's relic bones stupas must be constructed. You spirits
and deities should work with one heart to construct stupas for the Buddha's
relics at all places in Jambudvipa, which is inhabited by a full koti of families.
Though the project has been initiated by me, it depends upon you for its suc-
cessful completion, and I have no intention of monopolizing the advantages
of performing such superior good deeds. Each of you should go start the con-
struction work and wait for further instructions." Having received the edict,
the spirits and deities went away to start the construction work at their different
places, and when the work was completed they all came to ask for further
instructions.

After having opened the stupas built in eight countries and distributed the
relic bones [taken out from them] to the spirits and deities, King Asoka said
to the arhat, “My wish is to enshrine the relic bones in the various stupas at
the same time. I hope to do this but I do not know how to fulfill my wish.”
The arhat said, “Your Majesty can order the deities and spirits to enshrine
the relics at the same instant on the appointed date when they see that the
sun is eclipsed by an object in the shape of a hand.” The king imparted the
instruction to the spirits and deities. On the appointed date King Asoka
observed the sun, and at midday the arhat, through supernatural power,
stretched out his arm and covered up the sun with his hand. The eclipse was
seen by all everywhere the stupas were being constructed and at that moment
they commenced work simultaneously.

Not far from the stupa is a temple containing a stone on which the Tathagata
once stood and the traces of his footprints are still in existence. The two foot-
prints have the wheel signs and the ten toes have floral ornaments. The fish
patterns are visible and sometimes issue a bright light. In olden times, when
the Tathagata was about to enter nirvana he proceeded northward to the city
of Kusinagara and looked back at the country of Magadha in the south. He
was standing on this stone when he told Ananda, “I leave my last footprints
here, looking back at Magadha while I am going to enter nirvana. One hundred
years afterward there will be a King Asoka who will rule over the world and
establish his capital at this place. He will protect the Triple Gem and command
all kinds of deities to do him service.” When King Asoka succeeded to the
throne he shifted his capital to this place and built a city here, and protected

199

911c

912a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the footprint stone with a shelter. As it was near the palace city the king
always came in person to make offerings to it.

Afterward various kings vied with one another in trying to bring the stone
home. Although it was not very big they could not move it. Recently King
Sasanka persecuted the buddha-dharma and went to the place of the stone,
intending to destroy the holy object. He effaced the footprints with a chisel
but they reappeared with the same traces and patterns. Then he threw the
stone into the Ganges River but it immediately returned to its original place.
The stupa beside the stone marks the place where the four past buddhas sat
and walked up and down in olden times.

Not far from the temple of the Buddha's footprints there is a huge stone
pillar more than thirty feet tall. The inscription on it has been partially erased
but it says roughly that King Asoka was a staunch believer who offered
Jambudvipa to the Triple Gem thrice and redeemed it thrice with valuable
pearls and gems. Such are the fragmentary words that are still legible.

To the north of the palace city is a great rock chamber with the appearance
of a lofty hill and a space several tens of feet wide inside. It was constructed
through the labor of deities and spirits by the order of King Asoka for his
younger brother, who was a monk. King Asoka had a younger brother by the
name of Mahendra (known as Dadi, “Great Ruler,” in Chinese). As he was
born in a royal family he presumptuously put on the king's robe and led a
luxurious and dissolute life, treating people cruelly until they bore a grudge
against him. The prime minister and other senior officials exhorted the king,
saying, “Your younger brother has gone too far in riding roughshod over the
people. As the saying goes, when the government is impartial the country
will be in good order, and when the people live in harmony the ruler will be
at peace. This precept has been handed down from ancient times. We hope
that the code of the country will be maintained and that he will be put on
trial according to the law.”

King Asoka, in tears, said to his younger brother, “Since I succeeded to
the throne I have put all living beings under my protection. As you are my
brother from the same mother, how can I neglect to benefit you? But I did
not guard and guide you in time so that you have now incurred the punishment
for criminals. I am in fear of my ancestors above and forced by public criticism
from below.”

200

Fascicle VIII

Mahendra bowed to the king apologetically and said, “I am so imprudent
as to have infringed the law. I hope you will grant me seven days' respite."
He was then confined in a dark chamber under strict custody but was provided
with the best delicacies without negligence. [At the end of the first day] the
guardian announced, “One day has passed and there are six more days."
When the sixth day had passed, Mahendra, deeply worried and fearful, made
vigorous efforts both physically and mentally [in spiritual cultivation], and
thereupon he gained the fruit of sainthood, ascended into the air, and mani-
fested miracles. Before long he left the world and went far away to live in a
rocky valley. King ASoka went personally to see him and said, “I was bound
by the law of the country so I had to inflict a severe penalty upon you. I did
not think that you would elevate yourself and realize the fruit of sainthood.
You are now free from trouble and you may return to our country." His
younger brother said, “Formerly I was caught in the net of passions and my
mind was fixated on [pleasurable pursuits]. I am now free from the city of
perils and I take delight in staying in the mountains and valleys. I wish to
relinquish the human world and always remain in the hills and vales." The
king said, “If you wish to engage yourself in quiet meditation it is not nec-
essary for you to live in remote mountains. In compliance with your wish,
however, I will build a cave for you."

The king then summoned the spirits and deities and said to them, “I will
prepare a grand banquet of delicacies on the day after tomorrow. You may
all come to attend the feast but each of you should bring a large rock to serve
as a seat." By the king's order the deities came at the appointed time and,
when the feast was over, the king told the deities, “The stone seats are in dis-
array so you should stack them up in proper order. I mean to make use of
your labor to build a hollow chamber." Under the king's instruction the deities
completed the work in a few days’ time. King Asoka then went to invite [his
younger brother] to stay in the hill cave.

To the north of the old palace and south of the hell there is a large trough
that was made by divine labor under the command of King Asoka. It is used
for storing comestibles at the time of offering food to the monks.

To the southwest of the old palace there is a rocky hill, around which there
are several tens of caves that were excavated in the steep cliffs by divine
labor under the command of King A$oka, for Upagupta and other arhats.

201

912b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

There used to be a lofty terrace beside the hill but it has collapsed, leaving
only a pile of stones as the remnant foundation. In a pond there is rippling
water as clear and reflective as a mirror. It is regarded as holy water by the
people of neighboring and distant countries. If one drinks or bathes in the
water the soil will be washed away and one's sins will be expiated.

To the southwest of the hill there are five stupas whose lofty foundations
have collapsed, but the remnant portions are still high. When viewed from
a distance they seem to be verdant hillocks. Each side of the stupas has a
space several hundred paces wide. People of later times constructed small
stupas upon the big ones. It is said in the Record of India that in the old days,
after King Ašoka had built eighty-four thousand stupas, he still had five dou
of [the Buddha's] relics. Therefore he constructed five more stupas in a dif-
ferent style from that of other places. Miracles occurred from time to time
to testify to the fivefold spiritual body ofthe Tathagata. Some impious people
discussed the matter in private, saying that these stupas were constructed by
King Nanda of yore to store his seven kinds of treasures. Later a king of little
faith heard about the rumor and, covetous of the treasures, he sent his troops
under his personal supervision to excavate the stupas. But the earth quaked,
the mountains collapsed, clouds enshrouded the sun, and the stupas issued
a loud sound of thunder. The soldiers fell dead and the elephants and horses
fled in fear. Since then no one has dared another attempt [to excavate] the
stupas. Some people have said that there were different accounts of this
matter, but this could not be unascertained. We may get the true facts by fol-
lowing the records of ancient books.

To the southeast of the old city is Kukkutarama Monastery (known as
Jiyuan, “Rooster Garden,” in Chinese), which was built by way of performing
good deeds with veneration by King Ašoka when he first had faith in the
buddha-dharma. He summoned one thousand monks, both ordinary people
and saints, [to this monastery], offered them the four monastic requisites,
and provided them with other articles for daily use. The monastery has been
in ruins for a long time and only the foundations are still in existence. Beside
this monastery is a great stupa called Amalaka, which is the name of a sort
of medicinal fruit (amalaka; myrobalan) of India.

King A$oka, lying ill on his deathbed, knew that he was incurable and he
intended to give up his gems and jewels for the performance of good deeds,

202

Fascicle VIII

but his influential ministers had seized power and would not allow him to
do what he desired. Later he kept an amalaka fruit from his meal and played
with it until it had become half spoiled. Holding the fruit in his hand, he said
to his ministers with a long sigh, “Who is now the lord of Jambudvipa?” The
ministers said in reply, “Your Majesty is the sole lord of Jambudvipa." The
king said, “No! I am not the lord now! I have sovereign power only over this
half a fruit. What a pity! Worldly wealth and nobility are more easily extin-
guished than a candle burning in the wind. My position entitled me to control
the whole country and my title is the highest of all designations, yet I am
poor on my deathbed, under the command of powerful ministers. Even though
I have lost the empire I still possess half a fruit." Then he ordered his attending
official, “Take this half a fruit to Kukkutarama Monastery and offer it to the
monks with the following message: ‘I, the former lord of the whole of Jambud-
vipa, now the king of half an amalaka fruit, beg to pay homage in front of
the monks of great virtue. I hope that you will accept my last alms. I have
lost all that I once possessed, except for this half a fruit, which is somehow
at my disposal. Please have pity on my poverty and let my seeds of blessedness
grow and increase.’” The senior monk of the community said, “King Asoka
used to be generous in almsgiving but he now suffers from a serious illness
and treacherous ministers have usurped his power. His accumulated wealth
is no longer his own property and he has only half a fruit to give as alms. By
the king's order we will distribute the fruit to all the monks." So the senior
monk instructed the steward monk to cook the fruit in a thick soup and then
collected the kernel, for which a stupa was built. Since the monks had received
the king's great beneficence it was fitting that they fulfill his last wish.

In an old monastery to the northwest of Amalaka Stupa there is a stupa
known as Bell Striking. Formerly there were about a hundred monasteries
in this city. The monks were solemn and respectful and had great learning,
and they had silenced the heretical scholars [in debate]. In the course of time
the monks eventually died and their successors failed to maintain the tradition
of learning. The heretical teachers taught their students to become perfect in
knowledge and they then summoned their schoolmates, thousands and myriads
in number, to assemble at the monastic buildings, shouting aloud, “Strike
the bell to call up all your scholars!" Groups of ignorant monks came together
and wantonly sounded the bell and they reported to the king, requesting him

203

912c

913a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

to be the judge of the contest. The heretical teachers were highly talented
scholars of good learning, and even though there were numerous monks
their arguments were shallow and superficial. The heretics announced, “We
are the winners of the debate. From now on no monastery should strike the
bell to call assemblies." The king sanctioned the request, according to the
precedent regulations of debate. Having been put to shame, the monks with-
drew in disgrace and for twelve years they did not strike the bell.

At that time, Nagarjuna Bodhisattva (known as Longmeng, “Dragon
Valor," in Chinese, formerly mistranslated as Longshu, “Dragon Tree") of
South India had enjoyed a good reputation from his youth, and he enjoyed
unique fame when he had grown up he. He renounced the world of lust and
love and became a monk to cultivate his learning. He made a profound study
of the wonderful principles and attained the first stage [of a bodhisattva]. He
had a great disciple named Deva, a person of wisdom and cleverness with
wits and good understanding. Deva said to his teacher [ Nagarjuna], “The
scholars of Pataliputra were defeated in debate by the heretics, and time
passes so quickly that twelve years have passed since they stopped striking
the bell. I would venture to demolish the hill of erroneous views and light
the torch of the Dharma.” Nagarjuna said, “The heretics of Pataliputra are
erudite scholars and you are no match for them. I must go in person.” Deva
said, “To cut off rotten grass is it necessary to overturn the whole mountain?
Under your instruction I venture to refute the heterodox scholars. May you,
my great teacher, raise an argument in favor of the heretical theories and
let me analyze the points against them, and we shall see who will be the
winner before we plan our action.” Nagarjuna then proposed a thesis of the
heretical theories, and Deva refuted his teacher as the latter tried to maintain
his viewpoints. At the end of seven days Nagarjuna had failed to uphold his
proposition. He said with a sigh, “Erroneous views can be easily refuted
and it is difficult to defend wrong theories. You may now go; you can surely
defeat them.”

Deva Bodhisattva had always been a man of high renown. When the
heretics of Pataliputra heard about his arrival they assembled and hurriedly
went to report to the king, saying, “Your Majesty has formerly condescended
to hear our suggestion that a rule be made to prevent the monks from striking
the bell. We pray that a decree be issued to order the guardians of the city

204

Fascicle VIII

gates not to allow a foreign monk from a neighboring country to enter the
city, lest he conspire to recklessly overturn the former rule." The king con-
sented to their proposal and ordered the guardians to keep strict watch. Thus
when Deva arrived he was barred from entering the city. Hearing about he
restriction, he changed his clothes, folded his samghati robe, and wrapped
it in a bundle of straw. Holding the front piece of his long gown in hand, he
hastily went into the city, carrying the straw bundle on his head. After entering
the city and having cast away the straw, he put on his religious robe and came
to this monastery to ask for lodging, but as he had no acquaintance there no
one would provide him with a room. So he spent the night on the terrace of
the bell and early next morning he struck the bell loudly. When the monks
heard the sound of the bell they came out to see and found that the traveling
monk [had struck the bell], as the other monasteries did the same in response
to the call of this monastery. The king, having heard the sound, inquired into
the matter but could not find out who was the first to strike the bell. When
the king's man came to the monastery the monks pointed out Deva, who
said, “A bell is sounded for assembling the monks. If you do not strike it
what is the use of hanging it there?” The king’s man said, “Formerly the
monks were defeated in a debate, so twelve years ago a rule was laid down
to prohibit them from striking the bell.” Deva said, “Is that so? I wish to beat
the drum of the Dharma again today."

The messenger reported to the king, saying, “A foreign sramana wishes
to avenge a former shame." The king then summoned the scholars and made
a rule that one who loses an argument should pay with his life for the failure.
Then the heretics displayed their flags, set out their drums, and boisterously
talked on different theories, showing off their talent for eloquence. Having
sat on the seat of discussion, Deva listened to their disputations and, aiming
at their different views, he refuted them through analysis. In less than twelve
days he vanquished all the heretics, to the delight of the king and his ministers,
who built this spiritual stupa in memory of Deva's supreme virtue.

To the north of Bell Striking Stupa is the old site of the dwelling place of
the demon-eloquent brahman. Formerly there was a brahman of the city [of
Pataliputra] who lived in a thatched hut in a desolate place, dissociating himself
from the world. He worshiped demons to beseech them for blessedness and
he conversed with evil spirits. He had brilliant ideas, talked volubly, and

205

913b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

answered questions with elegant words. Whenever people held a heated
debate with him he always retorted from behind a curtain. None of the learned
scholars with high talent could excel him and the common people unanimously
respected him as a saint.

There was a bodhisattva named A$vaghosa (known as Maming, “Horse-
neighing," in Chinese), whose wisdom comprehended everything and whose
way extended to the three vehicles. He often remarked on the matter, saying,
“This brahman has no teacher to teach him and his arts are groundless and
without ancient basis. He lives in seclusion, enjoying great renown all by
himself. How could he be what he is unless he depends on deities and ghosts
and is obsessed with evil spirits? One whose ability of eloquence is endowed
by a demon cannot speak face to face with another person and he cannot
reiterate what he has said once. I must go there and see how he will behave."
So he went to the [brahman's] hut and said to him, “I have heard of your
great fame with admiration for quite a long time. I hope you will lift the
curtain so that I may express what is on my mind." The brahman remained
arrogant, talking from behind his curtain, and would not speak face to face
[with his visitor]. ASvaghosa realized that it was the demon who was so
self-conceited. After the conversation ended he left and told the people, “I
have come to know what is what and I am sure to defeat him." Then he went
to see the king and asked for permission to hold a sharp debate with the her-
mit. The king was surprised to hear this and said, “What sort of man are
you? Unless you have gained the three clear insights or obtained the six
supernatural powers, how could you contest with him?" Nevertheless, he
ordered that his carriage be prepared and went in person to see the details
of the controversy.

At that time Asvaghosa Bodhisattva discussed the subtle words of the Tripi-
taka and elucidated the general meanings ofthe five branches of knowledge.
He talked eloquently and with great ease and his brilliant views were lucid
and far-sighted. After the brahman had stated his opinion, ASvaghosa said,
“In your statement you lost the gist of my argument. Please repeat what you
have said." The brahman remained silent and became tongue-tied, however.
A$vaghosa rebuked him, saying, “Why do you not resolve my interrogation?
The demon you serve should hasten to give you words." While saying this
he hurriedly lifted the curtain, trying to get a look at the demon, but the brahman

206

Fascicle VIII

said in а flustered and fearful manner, “Stop! Stop!" A$vaghosa withdrew and
remarked, “That fellow has lost his fame this morning. As the saying goes,
false fame cannot last long." The king said, “If not for your great virtue, who
could have seen through his sinister fraudulence? According to the regular
tradition ofthe country someone who has an unprecedented and unique capa-
bility of discernment should be commended for his perspicacity."

More than two hundred /i away from the southwest corner of the city there
are the remnant foundations of a monastery, beside which is a stupa that often
issues a divine light and manifests spiritual signs. People come here from
far and near to say prayers. This was a site where the four past buddhas sat
and walked up and down in ancient times.

Going southwest for more than one hundred /i from the old monastery, I
reached Tiladhaka Monastery. It consists of four courts, three-storied pavilions,
lofty terraces, and gates that open wide, leading from one to another. All of
these were built by the last descendant of King Bimbisara. He selectively
invited people of high talent and widely summoned those of great virtue.
Scholars of foreign countries and wise people from distant lands, one after
another, came in groups of the same caliber and stayed [in this monastery ].
There are thousands of monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. At
the end of the path, facing the middle gate, are three shrines that are adorned
with wheel signs on the roofs and have bells and chimes suspended in the
air. On the terrace below there are spacious balustrades all around. The doors,
windows, beams, outer walls, and stairs are embellished with gilt or copper
ornaments in relief. In the middle shrine there is a standing statue of the
Buddha, thirty feet in height, while in the left one is a statue of Tara Bodhi-
sattva and in the right one a statue of Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva. All three
statues, cast in brass, are austere in appearance and spread far-reaching divine
precepts. In each of the three shrines there is one sheng of [the Buddha's]
relic bones, which sometimes emit a divine light and show signs of unusual
auspiciousness from time to time.

At a distance of over ninety /i to the southwest of Tiladhaka Monastery
I reached a great mountain where spirits and immortals dwell among the
dense clouds and rocks lie in seclusion, venomous snakes and violent dragons
lurk in the hollows of the marshes, fierce animals hide in the woods, and
birds of prey perch on the trees. On the summit of the mountain is a large

207

913c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

flat rock on which is built a stupa over ten feet high. This was a place where
the Buddha once sat in samadhi.

Formerly the Tathagata once came here through supernatural power and
sat on this rock in the samadhi of complete cessation for an entire night. The
devas, spiritual beings, and saints made offerings to him, performed celestial
music, and heavenly flowers rained down. After the Tathagata had emerged
from the state of samadhi the heavenly beings, out of feelings of respect and
admiration, constructed a stupa with gems, gold, and silver, but over the
course of time the precious substances have turned into stone. Since ancient
times nobody has ever visited the stupa. Looking from afar at the high moun-
tain one can see strange beings, long snakes, and fierce animals circumam-
bulating to the right around the stupa, and devas, immortals, spirits, and saints
coming one after another to sing praise. On a hillock to the east of the moun-
tain is a stupa built at the place where the Tathagata once walked and stopped
to look back at the country of Magadha.

At a spur of a hill over thirty /i to the northwest of the mountain there is
a monastery built on an elevated place backed by a ridge, with lofty pavilions
excavated on the precipices. There are more than fifty monks, all of whom
study the Mahayana teachings. This was the place where Gunamati (known
as Dehui, “Virtue-wisdom,” in Chinese) Bodhisattva subdued the heretics.

There was once on this mountain a brahman named Madhava, who was
a follower of the theories of the Samkhya school and practiced the same
accordingly. He was an expert in both Buddhist and heretical doctrines and
could speak well on the principles of nonexistence and existence. His fame
excelled that of his predecessors and his virtue won the respect of his con-
temporaries. The king esteemed him as national treasure and the ministers
and common people honored him as their personal teacher. Scholars of neigh-
boring countries accepted his style of learning, respected him for his virtue,
and regarded him as a pioneer. He was indeed a learned and erudite man. He
lived on the fief of two cities in an abode surrounded by feudal lands.

At that time Gunamati Bodhisattva of South India had been a person of
intelligence since his childhood. He was exquisite in learning in his early
days, had thoroughly mastered the Tripitaka, and perfectly understood the
Four Noble Truths. When he heard that Madhava’s theories were most pro-
found and abstruse he decided to frustrate his vainglory. He sent a disciple

208

Fascicle VIII

to the brahman with the following message, “I respectfully inquire after
Madhava’s health and hope you are living in peace and happiness. It befits
you to forget about fatigue and make a good review of your past learning.
In three years I shall put an end to your good repute." In the second and third
years he repeated the message to the brahman. When he was about to start
out on the journey [to see the brahman] he wrote another letter to him, saying,
“The time is drawing to an end. How is the progress of your studies? You
should know that I am coming soon." Greatly worried and afraid, Madhava
warned his disciples and feudal tenants that from then on they should not
take in any sramana or heathen, and he told them to pass the notice to all
others and to not infringe the admonition.

At that time Gunamati Bodhisattva came with his pewter staff to of Ma-
dhava's fief but the tenants, in keeping with the prearrangement, refused to
give him lodging. The brahman reproached him, saying, “With a tonsured poll
and dressed in a unusual costume, what a strange figure you are! It befits you
to go away quickly and not stay here!" Gunamati wished to defeat the brahman
and desired to stay in the latter's feudal land, so he said in polite language with
a mind of compassion, “You people are pure ascetics following the worldly
truth, while I am a pure ascetic practicing the superior truth. Since we all are
pure ascetics, why do you reject me?" The brahman would not speak with him
but instead drove him away. Having been driven out of the feudal land Gunamati
entered a great forest in which packs of fierce animals wrought havoc.

A pure believer, fearing that Gunamati might be hurt by the animals, came
with a torch and a staff in hand and said to the bodhisattva, “A Gunamati
Bodhisattva of South India whose fame has spread far is coming to hold a
debate. Thus the lord of the fief, fearing that his good name might be lost in
the polemic, issued a strict order to his people to not give overnight lodging
to any sramana. Fearing that he may be harmed by wild animals, I have come
here to help him. He may go his way in safety without worry." Gunamati
said, “I must tell you, pure believer, that Iam Gunamati.” Having heard these
words the pure believer showed still deeper respect to Gunamati and said to
him, “If that is the case, you should quickly leave here." So they came out
of the dense forest and halted in an open marshland, where the pure believer
built a fire. Holding a bow in his hand he walked all around. When the night
had passed he said to Gunamati, *You should go now, lest people get wind

209

914a

914b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of you and come to injure you." Gunamati said with thanks, *I will never
forget your kindness."

He then went to the palace and said to the gatekeeper, “A sramana coming
from a great distance wishes to obtain the permission of the king to hold a
debate with Madhava." Having heard this announcement, the king was
amazed and said, “This man must be crazy!" Then he ordered a messenger
to go to the place of Madhava to declare his edict, saying, “A strange sramana
has come and begged to hold a debate [with you]. The ground for the argu-
mentation has been swept clean and an announcement has been sent out far
and near. I hope you will kindly attend the meeting with your gracious pres-
ence.” Madhava asked the messenger, “Is the man the sastra master Gunamati
of South India?" The messenger said, “Yes.” Madhava was greatly displeased
to hear this but he could not decline the invitation, so he went to the venue
of contention. The king and his ministers, as well as scholars, common peo-
ple, and nobles, gathered at the meeting, wishing to listen to the learned
discussion.

Gunamati put forward his proposition first, but up until sunset Madhava
refused to offer a retort, on the excuse that because of his his advanced age
he could not give a prompt reply but had to leave and quietly ponder the
question before returning to give his refutation. For every new point [raised
by his opponent] he always said that he must leave before making a reply.
The next morning, after he had taken his seat in the discussion, he could
not utter a word in refutation and on the sixth day he died, vomiting blood.
On his deathbed he said to his wife, “You are a woman of great talent and
you must not forget the shame I have suffered." Madhava's death was kept
secret and his wife, attired in gorgeous dress, came to the meeting. The
people in the assembly made a hubbub and said among themselves, “Ma-
dhava is self-conceited and is too shy to face Gunamati, so he has sent his
wife to come to the meeting. It is apparent who is superior and who is infe-
rior.” Gunamati Bodhisattva said to Madhava’s wife, “The one who can
subjugate you has been subjugated by me." The woman then beat a hasty
retreat in the face of these difficulties.

The king said [to Gunamati], “What secret words did you say that made
the woman go away in silence?" Gunamati said, “What a pity! Madhava is
dead! His wife came with the intention of holding the debate with me." The

210

Fascicle VIII

king said, “How do you know this? Please tell me." Gunamati said in reply,
*When she came she had a sorrowful look of mourning and her voice betrayed
her feelings of grief and sadness. That is how I knew that Madhava had died.
By saying ‘the one who can subjugate you,’ I was referring to her husband.”
The king then sent someone to see what had happened and he found that the
situation was just as had been described. The king said in self-reproach, “The
buddha-dharma is abstruse and wonderful and has brilliant sages coming
forth in succession; nonaction is the way that benefits living beings. According
to the original institutions and regulations of our country, I shall praise and
honor people of virtue in the usual manner." Gunamati said, “Stupid as I am,
I practice the Way and abide by chastity; I observe the precepts of contentment
and self-restraint and study the means to help others. Whenever I attempt to
induce someone [to the right path] I always first suppress his arrogance and
then convert him in an appropriate way. Now it is time for me to request
Your Majesty to assign all the tenants of Madhava’s fiefs to become [monks]
in the monastery for innumerable generations, so as to leave an example for
people in the future and transmit the fame of these good deeds forever. As
for the pure believer who gave me protection, I hope he will live blissfully
in the world and enjoy the same provisions that are given to the monks, in
order to persuade people to have pure faith, as well as to exalt his profound
goodness.” Thus this monastery was constructed for the glorification of this
superior event.

When Madhava was first vanguished in the debate, dozens of brahmans
fled to take refuge in a neighboring country, and they informed the brahmans
of that land about the shameful affair. They recruited brilliant scholars and
returned home to seek vengeance for the former insult. As the king respected
Gunamati, he went in person to invite the latter, saying, “Some heretics who
overrate their own abilities have organized a party, formed cliques, and ven-
tured to sound the drum to demand that a debate be held. I hope that you,
Venerable Sir, will crush these heretics.” Gunamati said, “The debaters may
be called to an assembly.” The heretical scholars were delighted to hear this
and said among themselves in consolation, “We shall certainly win the case

today!” Then the heretics expounded their theoretical principles. Gunamati
Bodhisattva said, “These heretics here have taken refuge in a distant land

and, according to the king’s former ordinance, they have become contemptible.

211

914c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

How can I debate with them face to face?" At that time Gunamati had a page
to serve him as a seat carrier, and that man often heard his master's supereroga-
tory disputations and had become adept in discussing the gist of subtle teach-
ings. As he stood by the side of his master, listening to his eloquent talk,
Gunamati clapped his seat and said, “Seat carrier, you may debate with them."
All the people in the assembly were surprised by this. The page then began
to raise questions. His words of deep meaning flowed like a spring and his
clear eloquence echoed in the air. In three rounds the heretics were vanquished
in the disputation, the sharpness of their tongues blunted and the shafts of
the fletching of their arrows broken. Because they had been defeated in the
debate they were made feudal tenants of the monastery.

More than twenty /i to the southwest of Gunamati Monastery 1s an isolated
hill, with a monastery built by the sastra master Silabhadra (known as Jiexian,
“Precept-virtue,” in Chinese) with the revenue of a city that was donated to
him as a reward for a successful discussion. The shape of the isolated hill
resembled a stupa for the preservation of the Buddha’s relics. The sastra
master, a brahman by caste, was the scion of the royal family of the country
of Samatata. When he was young he was fond of learning and had a good
character. He traveled to various parts of India in search of people of wisdom.
When he came to Nalanda Monastery in this country he met with Dharmapala
Bodhisattva, from whom he heard about the Dharma with faith and under-
standing, and under whose guidance he donned the dyed robe of a monk. He
inquired into the consummate principles and sought the way of emancipation.
He mastered both the ultimate truth and the subtle theories. He was well
known in his own time and his fame was high in foreign regions.

There was then in South India a heretic who sought into profound teachings
and delved into what was kept secret, having a thorough comprehension of
abstruse knowledge and a keen insight into subtle tenets. Hearing of
Dharmapala's high repute, he became deeply jealous and resentful. Despite
the obstacles of mountains and rivers he came to beat the drum and demanded
to hold a discussion with him. He said [to the king], “I am a man from South
India. I have heard that in your kingdom there is a great sastra master. Although
I am not clever I wish to have a full discussion with him.” The king said, “Yes,
we have such a person, as you say.” Then he sent a messenger to invite
Dharmapala, saying, “A heretic of South India has come from a distance of

212

Fascicle VIII

no less than one thousand /i, wishing to hold a competitive discussion with
you. I hope you will condescend to come to the debate ground."

Having heard this message, Dharmapala tidied his robe and made ready
to go. His disciple Silabhadra, an outstanding young man, stepped forward
and said, “Why are you going in such a hurry?" Dharmapala said, “Since
the Sun of Wisdom ceased to shine and the Lamp of Transmitting the Dharma
became extinct, heretics have massed like ants and heterodox views have
spread like wasps flying in swarms. Therefore I must go crush that debater."
Silabhadra said, “I have heard with respect your supererogatory discussions,
with which I dare to defeat the heterodox follower." Knowing that he was a
man of outstanding talent, Dharmapala gave his consent to the request. Sila-
bhadra was then just thirty years old and the assembly slighted him as being
too young, fearing that it would be difficult for him to combat his opponent
by himself. Knowing that the assembly was not content with the choice,
Dharmapala said in explanation, *What is valued in a person is his good
learning and intelligence, not his age. In view of the present situation
[Silabadhra] is sure to defeat the heretic.” On the day of the discussion young
and old people coming from far and near gathered together. The heretic
widely expounded his theories to the utmost extent, but Silabhadra refuted
him through reasoning in a most profound and abstruse way. Having exhausted
his words, the heretic departed in shame.

As a reward for [Silabhadra’s] virtue the king wished to give him this city
as a fief. The sastra master declined the offer, saying, “I am a monk dressed
in the dyed robe, living in contentment and keeping myself in purity. What
Is the use of a fief for me?" The king said, “The King of the Dharma has dis-
appeared and the Ships of Wisdom have sunk, one after another. If there is
no distinction [made to the worthy ones] how can we encourage scholars of
the younger generation? In order to spread the right Dharma I hope you will
kindly accept the gift.” Unable to decline the offer, sastra master Silabhadra
accepted the city as his fief. He constructed a monastery according to the reg-
ulations and provided daily necessities for the monks with the revenue from
the city.

Going southwest for forty or fifty /i from Silabhadra Monastery, I crossed
the Nairafijana River and reached the city of Gaya. This city is strongly built
but only sparsely populated, having only some one thousand brahman families,

213

915a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the descendants of a great rsi. The king did not make them his subjects and
the people honor them respectfully. More than thirty /i to the north of the
city is a clear spring, which is regarded in Indian tradition as holy water. [It
is believed that] when one drinks the water or washes in it his or her sinful
defilements are purified. Five or six /i to the southwest of the city is Gaya
Mountain, with deep valleys and far-reaching streams among steep peaks
and high cliffs. In India it is traditionally called Spiritual Mountain. Since
ancient times whenever kings and monarchs ascended the throne, exerted
influence on distant peoples, or excelled their predecessors in virtue, they
all came to this mountain to make an announcement of their achievements.
On top of the mountain is a stone stupa more than one hundred feet high
built by King Asoka. It has latent spiritual power and emits a divine light
from time to time. This is the place where the Tathagata formerly preached
the Ratnamegha-sütra and other scriptures.

To the southeast of Gaya Mountain is a stupa built at the birthplace of
Kasyapa, and to the south are two stupas built at the places where Gaya-
Kasyapa and Nadi-Kasyapa worshiped fire. At the place where Gaya-Kasyapa
worshiped fire, crossing a big river to the east, one reaches Pragbodhi Moun-
tain (known as Qianzhengjueshan, “Preenlightenment Mountain,” in Chinese,
as the Tathagata ascended this mountain prior to his realization of perfect
enlightenment). After striving hard for six years he had not yet attained perfect
enlightenment so he gave up austerities and accepted milk gruel. When the
Tathagata came from the northeast to this mountain he saw that it was a quiet
place and wished to gain enlightenment there. From the northeast ridge he
climbed up to the summit of the mountain, and the earth quaked and the
mountain trembled. The mountain god was frightened and told the Bodhi-
sattva, “This mountain is not a blessed place for you to achieve enlightenment.
If you stay here and enter the diamond samadhi the earth will sink and the
mountain will topple over.” The Bodhisattva came down by the southwest
side of the mountain. Halfway down the mountain there was a large cave
with its back to the crag and its mouth opening on a brook in front. The
Bodhisattva went in and sat cross-legged. The earth quaked again and the
mountain trembled for a second time. At that time beings of the Heaven of
Pure Abode chanted in the air, “This is not the place for the Tathagata to
achieve enlightenment. Fourteen or fifteen /i southwest from here, not far

214

Fascicle VIII

from the place where you practiced austerities, there is a pipal tree, under
which is a diamond seat. It is on this seat that all the buddhas of the past and
future sit to achieve perfect enlightenment. Please go there!" But the dragon
of the cave said, "This cave is a quiet and suitable place for you to attain
sainthood. May you have compassion and not relinquish it." Knowing that
this was not the place for him to realize buddhahood the Bodhisattva left his
shadow in the cave to satisfy the dragon's wishes and departed. (This shadow
was formerly visible to both the wise and the ignorant but now only some
people are able to see it.) Preceded by heavenly beings, the Bodhisattva went
to the bodhi tree. Later, after King ASoka rose to power, he built monuments
and stupas at the sites where the Bodhisattva ascended and descended the
mountain. Though these monuments differ in size they are the same in showing
spiritual signs, either raining celestial flowers or emitting a light that illumi-
nates the deep valleys. Every year at the end of the summer retreat monks
and laypeople from different places come here to make offerings and spend
two nights before going home.

Going southwest from Pragbodhi Mountain for fourteen or fifteen /i, I
reached the bodhi tree. The surrounding walls are built high and strong out
of brick; they are long from east to west and narrow from south to north, and
are about five hundred paces in circuit. Exotic trees and famous flowers cast
continuous shade on the ground, and fine sand and strange plants cover the
earth with a green quilt. The main gate opens east toward the Nairafijana
River and the southern gate 1s near a large flower pool. The west side is an
inaccessible natural barrier, while the northern gate leads to a big monastery.
Inside the enclosure the sacred sites are connected with one another. The
stupas or shrines were all built by monarchs, ministerial officials, and nobles
of various countries of Jambudvipa as memorials to their acceptance of the
bequeathed teachings of the Buddha.

At the center of the enclosure of the bodhi tree is the diamond seat, which
came into existence together with the great earth at the beginning of the
bhadrakalpa. It is in the middle of the three-thousand great chiliocosm, reach-
ing down to the golden wheel below the surface of the earth. It is made of
diamond and is over a hundred paces in circuit. Because the one thousand
buddhas of the bhadrakalpa all sit on it to enter the diamond samadhi, it is
called the diamond seat, and because it 1s the place for realizing the sacred

215

915b

915c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Way it is also called the bodhimanda (“seat for realizing buddhahood").
Whenever the earth quakes this spot alone remains stable. Thus, when the
Tathagata was about to attain enlightenment, the four corners of this seat
trembled in the directions of where he had traveled to, but when he came
here it was calm and quiet, without agitation. Since the beginning of the
period of decline at the end of the kalpa, when the right Dharma started to
deteriorate, this site was covered by sand and earth and was lost to view.
After the Buddha's nirvana the monarchs of various countries set up two
sitting statues of Avalokitesvara facing east at the southern and northern
limits of the enclosure, according to the Buddha's description as they had
heard from the tradition. Some old people said that when the statues of [Avalo-
kite$vara] disappear and become invisible the buddha-dharma will come to
an end. The statue at the south corner has already sunk down up to the chest.

The bodhi tree at the diamond seat is a pipal tree, which was several hun-
dred feet tall in the time of the Buddha, and although it has been cut down
or damaged several times it still remains forty or fifty feet high. Because the
Buddha attained full enlightenment while sitting under this tree, it is called
the bodhi tree (“tree of enlightenment"). The trunk of the tree is yellowish-
white in color and its branches and leaves are always green; they never wither
nor does their luster decrease, whether in winter or summer. Each year on
the day of the Tathagata's nirvana the leaves fade and fall but they grow out
again very soon. On that day the monarchs of various countries and monks
and laypeople from different places, thousands and myriads in number, gather
here of their own will to water and bathe the tree with scented water and
milk, accompanied by music. With arrays of fragrant flowers and lamps burn-
ing uninterruptedly, the devotees vie with each other in making offerings to
the tree.

After the Tathagata's demise, when King Asoka first ascended the throne
he believed in heretical doctrines and he destroyed the sites left by the Buddha.
He sent his troops and came in person to cut down the bodhi tree. He chopped
the roots, stalks, branches, and leaves into small pieces and had them heaped
up at a spot a few tens of paces to the west, where fire-worshiping brahmans
were ordered to burn the pile as a sacrifice to their god. Before the smoke
and flames had dissipated, however, two trees with luxuriant and verdant
leaves grew out of the furious fire; these trees were thus called ash bodhi

216

Fascicle VIII

trees. On seeing this strange sight, King Asoka repented his misdeeds and
water the remnant roots with sweet milk. When it was nearly dawn the tree
grew up as before. The king, greatly exhilarated to have seen this spiritual
wonder, made offerings to the tree in person with such delight that he forgot
to return home. The queen, a heretical believer, secretly sent someone to cut
down the tree after nightfall. When King А$оКа went to worship the tree at
dawn he was very sad to see only the stump of the tree. He prayed earnestly
and watered the stump with sweet milk, and in a few days the tree grew up
once again. With deep respect and astonishment the king built a stone enclo-
sure to the height of more than ten feet around the tree, which is still in exis-
tence. Recently King Sasànka, a heretical believer, denounced the buddha-
dharma out of jealousy, destroyed monasteries, and cut down the bodhi tree
[again]. He dug the ground so deep as to reach spring water but he could not
get at the ends of the roots, so he set fire to burn it and soaked it with sugarcane
juice with the intention of making it rotten and prevent it from sprouting.
Several months later, King Pürnavarman (known as Manzhou, “Full Armor,”
in Chinese) of Magadha, the last descendant of King Asoka, heard about the
event and said with a sigh of regret, “The Sun of Wisdom has sunk and only
the Buddha’s tree remained in the world; now that the tree has been destroyed
what else is there for living beings to see?” He prostrated himself on the
ground and wept piteously. He watered the tree with milk obtained from sev-
eral thousand cows and it grew up to some ten feet high in one night. Fearing
that people of later times might cut it down [again], he surrounded it with a
stone enclosure to the height of twenty-four feet. Thus the bodhi tree at
present is behind the stone wall, and more than ten feet of branches grow
out above the wall.

To the east of the bodhi tree is a shrine, one hundred and sixty or seventy
feet high, built on a base whose front side is more than twenty paces wide.
It was built with brick and plastered with lime. In all the niches arranged in
tiers there are golden images, and on the four walls are marvelous carvings
in the shapes of strings of pearls or figures of spirits. On top is installed a
gilded copper amalaka fruit (also said to be a precious bottle or a precious
pot). It is connected with a storied pavilion at the east, the eaves of which
are in three layers. The rafters, pillars, ridgepoles, beams, doors, and windows
are adorned with gold and silver carvings and studded with a mixture of

217

916a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

pearls and jade. The innermost chamber of the shrine has three doors con-
necting with the other parts of the structure. On each side of the outer door
there is a niche containing an image of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on the
left side and one of Maitreya Bodhisattva on the right side, both cast in silver
and more than ten feet in height.

Formerly King Asoka built a small shrine at the site of the [present] shrine
and a brahman later extended it. There was once a brahman who did not
believe in the buddha-dharma but worshiped the deity Mahesvara. He heard
that the deity was living in the Snow Mountains, so he went with his younger
brother to seek the fulfillment of his wishes from the deity. The deity said,
“Your wishes can be fulfilled only when you have done meritorious deeds.
It is not that you can get things by merely saying prayers, nor can I make
you satisfied." The brahman said, “What meritorious deed should I do so
that my mind can be satisfied?" The deity said, “If you wish to plant the seed
of goodness you should find the field of blessedness. The bodhi tree is the
place where the Buddha attained buddhahood, so you should quickly go back
to the bodhi tree and build a great shrine, dig out a large pond, and make
various offerings. Then your wishes will be fulfilled." Under the deity's
injunction the brahman, cherishing a mind of great faith, returned with his
younger brother. The elder one built the shrine and the younger one excavated
the pond. Then they made rich offerings to seek the fulfillment of their wishes.
They finally realized their wishes and became cabinet ministers to the king.
They gave away as alms whatever emoluments or rewards they received.

When the shrine was completed artists were invited to make an image of
the Tathagata as he appeared at the time of attaining buddhahood, but for a
long time no one answered the call for the job. At last a brahman came and
said to the monks, “I am good at making fine images of the Tathagata.” The
monks said, “What do you need for making the image?" The brahman said,
“I only need some scented clay and a lamp to be placed inside the shrine.
After I have entered the shrine the door should be tightly closed, and only
opened again after six months." The monks did as they were told, but just
four days short of six months they opened the door out of curiosity to see
[what was going on]. They saw that the image inside the shrine was in the
posture of sitting cross-legged facing the east, with the right foot upon [the
left thigh]; the left hand was drawn back and the right one pointed downward.

218

Fascicle VIII

It was just as if the figure was alive. The pedestal was four feet two inches
high and twelve feet five inches wide, and the image was eleven feet five
inches tall. The two knees were eight feet eight inches apart, and the width
from one shoulder to another measured six feet two inches. All the auspicious
physical symbols of a buddha were complete and the compassionate features
were true to reality, except that a little spot above the right breast was unfin-
ished. The monks saw no one in the shrine and realized that a divine hand
was at work. They were all filled with amazement and eagerly wished to
know about the affair. One of the sramanas, a simple man of honest mind,
had a dream in which he saw the brahman, who said to him, *I am Maitreya
Bodhisattva. Concerned that artists could not imagine the holy features of
the Buddha, I came in person to make the image. It is made with the right hand
pointing downward because just as the Tathagata was about to attain buddhahood
Mara came to disturb him, but the earth gods informed him of Mara's arrival.
One of the earth gods came out first to assist the Buddha in subjugating Mara
but the Tathagata said to the god, ‘Do not worry. I can surely subjugate him
with my power of forbearance.’ Mara said, ‘Who will bear you witness?’ The
Tathagata then pointed his hand to the earth, saying, ‘This one here will bear
me witness!’ At that moment the second earth god emerged to bear witness.
Therefore the image is made with the right hand pointing downward.” The
monks came to know that this was a divine manifestation and they were all
moved to tears. The unfinished spot above the breast was finished with various
gems and the image was adorned with a necklace of pearls, crowned with a
coronet, and embellished with other valuable ornaments.

When King Saganka felled the bodhi tree he also wished to destroy this
image. But when he looked at the compassionate features of the image he
did not have the heart to do so. On returning home he told his attendant min-
ister, “You should remove this image of the Buddha and replace it with that
of Mahesvara.” Having received the king’s edict, the attendant minister was
afraid and said with a sigh, “If I destroy the Buddha’s image I will suffer dis-
aster for many kalpas, but if I disobey the king’s order I will not only lose
my own life but also bring about the extermination of my entire family. What
should I do in this awkward plight?” He then called some Buddhist believers
to work as his servants and had them build a brick wall in front of the Buddha’s
image. Because he was ashamed to see the image in utter darkness he lit a

219

916b

916c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

lamp for it. On the front of the brick wall he drew a picture of Mahe$vara.
When this was done he made a report to the king. On hearing the report the
king dreaded the consequences. He suffered from blisters all over his body,
his skin became cracked, and before long he died.

The attendant minister hurriedly went back to the image and demolished
the brick wall [that screened it from view]. Though many days had passed
the lamp still burned, without extinction. The image is still in existence and
because it is in a deep inner chamber lamps and torches burn continually.
The compassionate features cannot be clearly seen unless early-morning sun-
light is reflected into the chamber with a big mirror to illuminate the divine
statue. Those who have the chance to see the image are struck with emotion.

The Tathagata attained perfect enlightenment on the eighth day of the sec-
ond half of the month of Vaisakha in the Indian calendar, corresponding to
the eighth day ofthe third month in our calendar, but according to the tradition
of the Sthavira school the event occurred on the fifteenth day of the second
half of the month of Vaisakha, corresponding to the fifteenth day of the third
month in our calendar. He was then around thirty or thirty-five years old.

To the north of the bodhi tree is a place where the Buddha walked up and
down. After achieving perfect enlightenment the Tathagata did not rise from
his seat but sat in meditation for seven days. When he rose to his feet he went
to the north of the bodhi tree, where he walked to and fro, east and west, for
seven days. When he had walked over ten paces signs of wondrous flowers
followed his footprints at eighteen points. People of later times built a brick
promenade about three feet high at this place. It is said in a previous record
that this sacred site can foretell the length of one’s life. One should make a
sincere vow before taking the measure. The length of the promenade varies
according to the possible life spans of those who measure it.

To the north of the promenade, on a huge rock on the right side of the
road, is a big shrine in which there is an image of the Buddha with its eyes
gazing upward. Formerly the Tathagata looked at the bodhi tree from this
place for seven days without blinking, gazing at the tree attentively with a
feeling of gratitude.

Not far to the west of the bodhi tree is a great shrine with a brass image
of the Buddha in the standing posture, facing east, adorned with rare jewels.
In front of the image is a blue stone with wonderful veins of various hues.

220

Fascicle VIII

This is the place where Brahma built a hall out of the seven precious sub-
stances and Indra made a seat, also with the seven precious substances, at
the time when the Tathagata first attained enlightenment. On this seat he sat
in meditation for seven days and emitted an unusual light that shone upon
the bodhi tree. The precious substances have since turned into stone because
the event occurred in the remote past.

Not far to the south ofthe bodhi tree is a stupa more than one hundred feet
high built by King Asoka. After having bathed himself in the Nairafijana River,
the Bodhisattva was going to the bodhi tree and pondered what he should use
for a seat. He got the idea of using some clean grass to make a seat. Meanwhile
Indra transformed himself into a grass cutter, carrying a bundle of grass going
on his way. The Bodhisattva said to him, *Can you favor me with some of
your grass?" The transformed figure respectfully offered him some grass and,
after receiving the grass, the Bodhisattva proceeded on his way.

Not far to the northeast of the spot of receiving grass is a stupa built at
the place where some bluebirds (Eophona personata) and a herd of deer
came as a good omen when the Bodhisattva was about to achieve buddhahood.
Among the signs of auspiciousness in India their presence 1s considered to
be the most lucky symbol. Thus, in compliance with the custom of the human
world, the celestial beings of the Heaven of Pure Abode made the bluebirds
fly around the Bodhisattva to indicate his spirituality and holiness.

To the east of the bodhi tree are two stupas, one on the left and the other
on the right side of the main road. This is the place where the King of Maras
disturbed the Bodhisattva. When the Bodhisattva was about to attain buddha-
hood the King of Maras exhorted him to become a supreme ruler [instead
of a buddha]. As this device was ineffective, the King of Maras withdrew in
deep sadness. His daughters volunteered to go to seduce the Bodhisattva but
with his divine power he changed the beautiful girls into decrepit old women.
They retreated, clinging to each other, holding sticks to support their slender
frames.

In a shrine to the northwest of the bodhi tree there is an image of Kasyapa
Buddha. Well known for its spirituality and sanctity, it often emits a bright
light. It is said in a previous record that if a person walks around the image
seven times with utmost sincerity he may gain the wisdom of knowing where
he was born in his past life.

221

917a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

To the northwest of the shrine of Kasyapa Buddha there are two brick
chambers, each housing an image of an earth god. One informed the Buddha
of the arrival of Mara and the other bore witness for the Buddha. People of
later times made these images of the gods in memory of their merits.

Not far to the west of the bodhi tree enclosure is a stupa more than forty
feet high, known as Saffron Stupa, built by a merchant lord of the country
of Jaguda. Formerly in the country of Jaguda there was a great merchant lord
who worshiped heavenly gods to pray for wealth, and he despised the buddha-
dharma and did not believe in the law of causality. He once led a group of
fellow traders to do business and sailed to the South Sea, where they encoun-
tered a typhoon and lost their way. They drifted along with the roaring waves
and sailed on the sea for three years until their rations were exhausted and
they had nothing more to eat. All those who were aboard the ship were in a
precarious situation and they earnestly prayed to the gods they worshiped
with one mind. They become quite fatigued with their laborious prayers and
had failed to receive divine rescue, when they suddenly saw a huge mountain
with lofty cliffs and steep peaks under the light of two bright suns. The mer-
chants said to comfort one another, *We are lucky to have come across this
huge mountain. We should stop here to get peace and happiness." The mer-
chant lord said, “It is not a mountain but a makara fish (a sea monster). The
lofty cliffs and steep peaks are its fins and whiskers and the two bright suns
are its eyes." Just as they had barely finished talking the ship floated toward
the monster. The merchant lord told his fellow traders, “I have heard that
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva will bestow peace and happiness on those who
are in peril and adversity. Let us call his name with a mind of complete sin-
cerity.” Then they all repeated the name of [Avalokite$vara] Bodhisattva in
unison and sought refuge under his spiritual protection. The lofty mountain
disappeared and the two suns submerged. In a moment they saw a Sramana
with a quiet and peaceful manner coming through the air, religious staff in
hand, to rescue them from being drowned. Very soon they returned to their
own country. Thereafter they cherished minds of resolute faith and tried to
perform good deeds indefatigably. They built a stupa for making offerings
and plastered the whole structure with saffron clay.

Having cherished the mind of faith, the merchant lord led his fellow traders
to worship the holy sites and visit the bodhi tree. They spent a whole month

222

Fascicle VIII

in pilgrimage before they thought of returning home. The traders, while trav-
eling together, said among themselves, “We are far away from our homeland,
separated by mountains and rivers. Since we are here, who will sweep and
clean the stupa we have built?" Having said this, they came in a roundabout
way to this place and suddenly saw a stupa. Surprised at the sight, they went
up to have a close look at the stupa and found that it was the one they had
built at home. Thus it was named the Saffron Stupa in India.

At the southeast corner of the bodhi tree enclosure there is a banyan tree,
and next to it are a stupa and temple. A statue of the seated Buddha is enshrined
in the temple. Formerly, when the Tathagata had just attained buddhahood,
Mahabrahma came here and entreated him to turn the wonderful wheel of
the Dharma. At each of the four corners inside the bodhi tree enclosure there
Is a great stupa. Formerly, when the Tathagata had received the auspicious
grass, he went to the bodhi tree. He went first to the four corners and the
earth quaked but it became quiet and calm when he reached the diamond
seat. Inside the enclosure are many sacred sites located as closely together
as the scales of a fish, and it is difficult to describe them all in full detail. At
the southwest corner outside the bodhi tree enclosure is a stupa that marks
the site of the old house of the two milkmaids who offered milk gruel [to the
Buddha]. Beside it is another stupa, marking the place where the milkmaids
cooked the gruel, and next to this stupa 1s the place where the Tathagata
received the gruel.

Outside the south gate of the bodhi tree enclosure is a big pond more than
seven hundred paces in circuit, with clear and lucid water in which dragons
and fish dwell. It was dug by the younger brother of a brahman under the
order of Mahesvara. Next, to the south is a pool that was magically produced
by Indra when the Tathagata wished to wash his clothes after having attained
enlightenment. At the west of the pool is a big rock that was brought here
by Indra from the Great Snow Mountains when the Buddha wished to dry
his washed clothes in the sun. Beside the rock is a stupa where the Tathagata
mended his old clothes. Next, to the south is a stupa in a wood, which was
the place where the Tathagata accepted the old clothes offered by a poor old
woman as alms.

To the east of the pool produced by Indra there is a wood in which the
pond of the dragon king Mucilinda is located; the water is clear, dark, and

223

917b

917c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

sweet-tasting. On the west bank is a small shrine in which is installed an
image of the Buddha. Formerly, after the Tathagata had just attained enlight-
enment he sat in meditation for seven days in this place. The dragon king
protected the Tathagata by surrounding him with his body in seven coils,
while its many heads reached over him to serve as a canopy. On the east
bank of the old pool is the chamber of the dragon king.

In a wood to the east of the dragon Mucilinda's pool is a shrine with an
image of the Buddha in an emaciated condition. Beside the shrine is the place
where he walked up and down, more than seventy paces long, and there are
two pipal trees, one at the south and the other at the north side of the prom-
enade. In the past and at present it is the custom of the local people to anoint
the image with fragrant oil when they are afflicted with a disease, and in
most cases they are cured of their illness. This was the place where the Buddha
practiced austerities. In order to subdue the heretics, and also at Mara's
request, he practiced asceticism for six years, eating only one grain of sesame
and one grain of rice each day, reducing himself to a mere skeleton and
becoming so feeble that he had to hold onto the branch of a tree to stand up
to take a walk.

Beside the pipal tree where the Bodhisattva practiced austerities is a stupa
at the place where Ajfiata-Kaundinya and his four companions made their
abode. After Prince [Siddhartha] renounced his home to wander in the moun-
tains and marshlands and dwell in woods or by springs, King Suddhodana
sent these five men to look after and serve him. Because the prince practiced
austerities, Ajfiata-Kaundinya and the others also diligently did the same.

To the southeast of the abode of Ajfiata-Kaundinya and the others is a
stupa where the Bodhisattva entered the Nairañjana River to bathe. Not far
from the river is the spot where the Bodhisattva accepted and ate the milk
gruel. The stupa beside the spot is the place where two elders offered baked
barley and honey [to the Buddha]. The Buddha was sitting cross-legged in
silent meditation under a tree, enjoying the bliss of emancipation for seven
days before he emerged from the state of tranquility, when two merchants
passed by outside the wood. The god of the wood told the merchants, “The
prince of the Sakya clan is now in this wood. He has just attained buddhahood
and has been sitting in silent concentration with a fixed mind for forty-nine
days without taking any food. If you offer him whatever food you may have

224

Fascicle VIII

with you, you will receive great benefit." Each merchant then took out from
his ration bag some baked barley and honey to give as offerings, which the
World-honored One accepted.

Beside the place where the elders offered baked barley is a stupa where
the four devarajas offered almsbowls [to the Buddha]. When the merchants
had offered the baked barley and honey to him, the World-honored One con-
sidered what vessels he should use to hold the food. At that time the four
devarájas came from the four quarters and each offered him a golden bowl,
but the World-honored One declined the offer by keeping silent, thinking that
it was unsuitable for a mendicant to use such an [opulent] bowl. The four
devarajas took away the golden bowls and offered silver ones, and in suc-
cession they presented bowls of crystal, lapis lazuli, agate, coral, and pearl,
but the World-honored One declined them all. The four devarajas then returned
to their respective palaces and brought back stone bowls of a dark violet color
with a brilliant luster. In order to avoid showing partiality the World-honored
One accepted all four bowls, which he stacked and pressed together into one
bowl. That is why his almsbowl has four rims on the outside.

Not far from the place where the four devarajas offered almsbowls is a
stupa where the Tathagata preached the Dharma for his mother. After the
Tathagata had attained perfect enlightenment with the title of Teacher of
Heavenly and Human Beings, his mother, Lady Mahamaya, descended from
her heavenly palace and the World-honored One taught her according to her
capacity for her benefit and happiness. Beside this place, on the bank ofa
dried-up pond, is a stupa where the Tathagata once manifested supernatural
powers to convert those who had the good causes to be present on the occa-
sion. Beside the place of showing supernatural powers is a stupa where the
Tathagata converted Uruvilva-Kasyapa and his two younger brothers along
with their one thousand disciples. As time passed the Tathagata spread the
good Way to conquer people, Uruvilva-Kasyapa’s five hundred disciples
wished to accept the Buddha's teachings. Kasyapa said to them, “I shall also
go with you to give up the erroneous way." So all of them came to the place
where the Buddha was and the Tathagata told them, “Throw away your deer-
skin garb and relinquish the utensils for fire worship." In accord with the
Buddha's holy instruction, the brahmans cast their garments and utensils into
the Nairafijana River. Seeing the sacrificial utensils drifting away on the

225

918a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

current, Nadi-Kasyapa and his disciples waited to see what measures his
elder brother would take next. When they saw that his elder brother had
changed his religion they also followed his example and donned the dyed
robes to become Buddhist monks. When Gaya-Ka$yapa and his two hundred
disciples heard that his elder brothers had given up their practice, they also
came to where the Buddha was and wished to lead the life of purity.

To the northwest of the place where the Kasyapa brothers were converted
is a stupa where the Tathagata subdued the fire dragon worshiped by the
Kasyapas. Whenever the Tathagata wished to convert someone he first subdued
the object of that person's worship. So he went to stay in the cave of the brah-
mans' fire dragon. Late in the night the dragon spouted smoke and flames and
the Buddha, who was sitting in meditation, also issued a bright light, illuminating
the cave with the light of furious flames and blazing fire. The brahman teachers,
fearing that the fire might hurt the Buddha, hurried to the spot, wailing piteously.
Uruvilva-Kasyapa said to his disciples, “In view of the present situation it
may not be a fire. The sramana may be subjugating the fire dragon.” The
Tathagata then put the fire dragon into his almsbowl and showed it to the
heretical disciples at dawn. The stupa beside this spot was the place where
five hundred pratyekabuddhas entered nirvana simultaneously.

To the south of the pool of the dragon Mucilinda is a stupa where the
Kasyapas went to rescue the Tathagata from drowning. The Kasyapa brothers
were highly esteemed for their supernatural powers and were respected for
their virtue by people from far and near who had faith in them. In the course
of exerting his great power in an appropriate way to guide and convert those
who had gone astray, the World-honored One caused a dense cloud that
poured down torrential rains; only the Buddha’s lodging remained dry. Seeing
the clouds and rain, the Kasyapas said to their disciples, “Might the lodging
of the sramana not be flooded?” They sailed in a boat to rescue the World-
honored One but saw that he was walking on the surface of the water just as
if walking on earth, and when he walked into the river the water gave way
to him and the sand on the bottom appeared [to support him]. At this sight,
the Kasyapas were reassured and departed.

Two or three /i outside the enclosure of the bodhi tree is the cave of a blind
dragon. Because this dragon had done evil deeds in its previous lives it had
been reborn blind as its retribution. As the Tathagata was proceeding from

226

Fascicle VIII

Pragbodhi Mountain to the bodhi tree he passed by the cave of the blind dragon.
The dragon suddenly recovered its sight and saw that the Bodhisattva was on
his way to the bodhi tree. [The dragon] said to the Bodhisattva, “Kind sir, you
will soon gain perfect enlightenment. I have been blind for quite a long time
but whenever a buddha emerges in the world I regain my eyesight. When the
past three buddhas of the bhadrakalpa appeared in the world I recovered my
sight on each occasion. Now you have come here and my eyes suddenly
regained perception. From this I know that you will become a buddha."

Beside the east gate of the enclosure of the bodhi tree is a stupa where
the King of Maras [tried to] frighten the Bodhisattva. Knowing that the Bodhi-
sattva was going to achieve enlightenment and having failed to tempt him,
the King of Maras did not know what to do. Worried, he called various gods
to a meeting and arrayed his demon troops, arranging them in proper order,
to menace the Bodhisattva. A storm rose up, thunder and lightning flashed
in the dark night, fire blazed and smoke rose high, and sand and stones were
churned up and blown into the air. Spears and shields were fully prepared
and bows and arrows employed to the utmost, but the Bodhisattva remained
in the meditation of great compassion and all the weapons turned into lotus
flowers. Mara's troops became terrified and retreated in disorder. Not far
from this place are two stupas, built by Indra and Brahma.

Outside the north gate of [the enclosure of] the bodhi tree is Mahabodhi
Monastery, built by a former king of the country of Simhala. The buildings
consist of six courtyards and three-storied pavilions, surrounded by walls
thirty or forty feet high. The workmanship is most wonderful and the deco-
rative paintings are exquisitely done. The Buddha's image is made of gold
and silver and all the ornaments are embedded with gems and jewels. The
stupas are lofty and spacious with wonderful adornments and they contain
relics of the Tathagata. The bone relics are of the size of a finger joint, lustrous
and pure white in color and semitransparent. The flesh relics, as big as pearls,
are of a pinkish-blue color. Every year on the full moon day of the month of
showing the Tathagata’s divine power of ubiquity (1.е., on the thirtieth day
of the twelfth month in the Indian calendar, corresponding to the fifteenth
day of the first month in China) these relics are shown to the public and a
light is emitted or flowers rain down in showers. There are fewer than a thou-
sand monks, who study the teachings of both the Mahayana and Sthavira

227

918b

918c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

schools. They rigorously observe the Vinaya rules, are pure in conduct, and
have moral integrity.

Formerly, the king of the country of Simhala in the South Sea was a
devout Buddhist by birth. He had a cousin who had become a monk and
desired to visit the holy traces of the Buddha. So he traveled far to India
and sought lodging in various monasteries, but all the local monks despised
him as a frontiersman. He returned to his homeland and the king went out
some distance to welcome him. The sramana sobbed piteously and could
not speak properly. The king said, “What is wrong with you, why are you
so sad?” The sramana said, “Depending upon the prestige of our country I
traveled far to seek the Way. I sojourned in a foreign land and experienced
the discomfort of cold and hot weather. I was often insulted for my behavior
and ridiculed for my utterances. How could I be happy under such worrisome
and shameful conditions?" The king said, “If that is the case, what should
I do?” The sramana said, “I sincerely hope that Your Majesty will pay atten-
tion to the performance of good deeds and construct a monastery in India.
That will not only glorify the holy site but also build a good reputation for
yourself. The blessedness of the deed will honor our forefathers and benefit
our descendants as well." The king said, “That is a good idea. How is it that
I hear of it so late?"

The king [of Simhala] then offered all the treasures of his country to the
king of India, who, after accepting the tribute and wishing to foster friendship
with a distant ruler, said to the envoy, *What shall I give you to take back as
a return gift?" The envoy said, “The king of Simhala pays homage to the
King of Great Auspiciousness of India. Your prestige and virtue extend far
and your kindness and benevolence cover all living beings. A sramana of
our humble land, out of respect and admiration for the morals and manners
of your country, ventured to travel to your esteemed land to pay veneration
to the holy sites. He sought lodging in various monasteries but none would
house him. After undergoing extreme difficulties, he returned home in shame.
I humbly propose a far-reaching project that may serve as an example for
coming generations: to build a monastery in India in order to provide a resting
place for traveling monks, to promote good relations between our two coun-
tries, and to allow envoys to be exchanged without lapse." The king said,

228

Fascicle VIII

“The tradition of the Tathagata's subtle edification is still extant. You may
choose any of the holy sites [for the construction ]."

Bearing this message the envoy returned home to report to the king [of
Simhala]. The king's ministers prostrated themselves before him in congrat-
ulation. The sramanas were then convened to discuss the matter of construct-
ing a monastery and they said, “As the bodhi tree is the place where the past
buddhas attained [buddhahood] and future buddhas will attain buddhahood,
there is no better place among all the suggestions." The treasures of the
country were donated for the construction of this monastery, and monks from
the country [of Simhala] were sent to look after it. A copper plate was inscribed
with the following words: “Selfless almsgiving is the supreme teaching taught
by all buddhas and rendering assistance to those who have the cause to receive
it is the explicit instruction of former sages. I, this humble person, after having
succeeded to the throne, have built this monastery to glorify the holy site
and to render blessedness to my ancestors, as well as to benefit the common
people. The monks of my country may have free access to it and the people
of the country where it stands may also enjoy the same privilege as the monks.
This tradition is to be transmitted to posterity into the indefinite future." Thus
most of the monks in this monastery come from the Land of Lions.

More than ten /i to the south of the bodhi tree the sacred sites are located
so closely to each other that it is difficult to tell of them all in detail. Each
year when the bhiksus end the rains retreat, monks and laypeople, hundreds
and thousands in number, come here from the four quarters, holding flowers,
playing music, and wandering in the woods to perform acts of veneration
and make offerings for seven days and nights.

According to the Buddha's holy teachings, the monks of India commence
the rains retreat on the first day of the first half of the month of Sravana, cor-
responding to the sixteenth day of the fifth month in China, and the retreat
ends on the fifteenth day of the second half of the month of Asvayuja, cor-
responding to the fifteenth day of the eighth month in China. In India, as the
months are named after the constellations, the course of time has not changed
from ancient times to the present and it is invariably accepted by all schools.
Probably due to misunderstanding or mistranslation from the foreign language
differences in the calculations for the division of time and the fixation of the

229

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

months arose. Thus [in China] the rains retreat begins on the sixteenth day
of the fourth month and ends on the fifteenth day of the seventh month (one
month earlier than in India).

End of Fascicle VIII of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

230

Fascicle IX

The Country of Magadha
(Part 2)

To the east of the bodhi tree and across the Nairafijana River there is a stupa
in a great wood, and to the north of the stupa 1s a pond where a fragrant ele-
phant attended his mother. In the past, when the Tathagata was practicing
the deeds of a bodhisattva, he was born as the son of a fragrant elephant,
living on North Mountain, and he came to the pond for pleasure. As his
mother was blind, he drew pure water and fetched lotus roots to feed her
with respect and filial piety; this he did for a long time. A man once lost his
way while traveling through the wood, and walked back and forth, weeping
piteously. Hearing the sound, the young elephant felt pity for the man, guided
him out of the wood, and showed him the way home. After the man returned
home he reported to the king, “I know that a fragrant elephant is wandering
about the pond in the wood. This is a rare animal and you can go capture it.”
The king agreed and sent soldiers to capture the elephant. The man accom-
panied them as a guide but at the very moment he pointed out the young ele-
phant for the king, both his arms fell off as if they had been severed. Even
though the king was surprised by the sight he still captured the young elephant
and brought him home. The young elephant refused to eat grass or drink water
for a long time after he was caught. The stable keeper informed the king, who
went personally to inquire into the matter. The young elephant said, “My
mother is blind and is starving all day long. As I am now a captive, how can
I enjoy delicious food?" Moved by the elephant's filial sentiment, the king
released him. In front of the stupa beside the pond is a stone pillar where
Kasyapa Buddha sat in meditation in the past. Beside it are places where the
four past buddhas sat and walked up and down.

After crossing the Maha River to the east of the seats of the four past
buddhas, I reached a great wood in which there is a stone pillar marking the
place where a heretic sat in meditation and made an evil vow. In the past the

231

919a

919b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

heretic Udraka Ramaputra was someone who aspired to spiritual attainment
and made his abode in the wilderness. He engaged his mind in meditation
and lived in seclusion in this wood of religious practice. As he had gained
the five supernormal powers and achieved the samadhi of neither thought
nor non-thought, the king of Magadha highly respected him and invited the
hermit to the palace for a meal every day at noon. Udraka Ramaputra traveled
through the air to and fro without interruption and the king of Magadha would
look into the air and wait for him. On his arrival the king received him and
gave him a seat.

Once the king was about to go out on a pleasure trip and intended to entrust
someone to serve the hermit. But there was no one in the inner palace who
was competent to answer the call, except his own daughter, a courteous, well
behaved, and prudent young lady with a kind heart whom no one excelled
in amiability and virtue. The king of Magadha summoned his daughter and
ordered her, “I am traveling to a distant place and have something to entrust
to you. Please be careful to fulfill this duty to completion. The hermit Udraka
Ramaputra is someone I always venerate respectfully. When he comes at
mealtimes you should serve him as I do.” Having given this instruction the
king started on his journey. Under the king’ order the young maid waited for
the hermit as usual, and upon his arrival she received him and took him to his
seat. Due to having been in contact with a woman, Udraka Ramaputra felt an
impulse of desire and lost his supernormal powers.

After the meal was over and he was about to return the hermit found that
he was no longer able to fly. Ashamed, he said deceitfully to the maid, “I
have been practicing the Way and sitting in meditation with a peaceful mind
for many years, and I am used to flying through the air without any leisure
moments. I heard long ago that the people of the country wished to see me.
Previous teachers taught us that we should work for the benefit of others as
our duty. How can one work only for one’s own good and forget about altru-
istic considerations? I now wish to depart through the door and walk on the
earth so that those who see me may gain bliss and benefit.” On hearing these
words, the princess made a public announcement. Thereupon, the people
hurriedly sprinkled water and swept the thoroughfare clean, and hundreds
and thousands of people stood still for a long time, waiting for the appearance
of the hermit.

232

Fascicle IX

Udraka Ramaputra walked from the palace to the religious wood and sat
down to practice meditation, but his mind was disturbed by the external envi-
ronment. When he stayed in the wood he heard the crowing and chirping of
crows and other birds, and when he was near the pond the splashing of fish
and turtles annoyed him. His attention was distracted and his mind confused,
and he lost his spirit and was unable to practice meditation. He became
enraged and made an evil vow, saying, "Let me be in the future a fierce and
wicked animal with the body of a leopard and the wings of a bird, preying
on living creatures. My body will be three thousand / in width and each of
the wings fifteen hundred /i in length. I shall haunt the forests to devour the
feathered tribes (birds) and enter the waters to eat aquatic animals." After he
made this vow his anger gradually abated, and through hard work he regained
his original meditative state soon afterward. Before long he died and was
reborn in the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor Non-thought, enjoying a life
span of eighty thousand kalpas. The Tathagata predicted that after the con-
clusion of his heavenly life the hermit would realize his original vow and be
reborn as the ugly creature. From that time on he would cycle in the evil
states of transmigration without a fixed time for his release.

To the east of the Maha River I entered a great jungle and, going for more
than one hundred /i, I reached Kukkutapada (known as Jizu, *Cock's Foot,”
in Chinese) Mountain, also called Gurupada (known as Zunzu, “Sage’s Foot,”
in Chinese) Mountain. The lofty peaks are extremely steep and the deep
valleys seem to be bottomless. At the foot of the mountain and among the
brooks there are tall trees in the valleys, and the peaks and cliffs are covered
in luxuriant green grass. There are three precipitous, cloud-capped peaks,
nearly touching the sky. Because Venerable Mahakasyapa entered nirvana
on this mountain people of later times, not wishing to mention his name inap-
propriately, called it Guru's Foot Mountain.

Mahakasyapa was a sravaka disciple [of the Buddha] who achieved the
six supernatural powers and possessed the eight forms of liberation. When
the Tathagata had completed his career of edification and was about to enter
nirvana, he told Kasyapa, “For innumerable kalpas I diligently practiced aus-
terities seeking the supreme Dharma for the benefit of all living beings. As
I have now fulfilled my desire and expectation that I wished for in the past,
I am going to enter mahanirvana. I entrust to you the Dharma pitaka and

233

919c

920a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

you should preserve and spread it and never let it degrade. I will leave behind
the golden-thread kasaya that my aunt offered to me, to be transmitted to
Maitreya when he becomes a buddha in the future. All those who cultivate
themselves in my bequeathed teaching, whether bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas,
or upasikas (male and female lay devotees), should first be delivered from
the cycle of transmigration.”

Having received the Buddha's instructions, Kasyapa upheld the right Dharma.
In the twentieth year after the conclusion of the Great Council he grew tired
of the impermanent world and wished to enter nirvana. He went to Kukkuta
Mountain and climbed the north side of the mountain; going by a roundabout
route he reached the southwest ridge. The peaks are dangerous and difficult to
ascend, and the paths are tortuous and overgrown with weeds. He cleared the
way with his pewter staff and cut down the weeds as if he were using a knife.
After he had opened the mountain path he proceeded along the roundabout
route in a crisscross manner. On reaching the summit he faced the northeast.
Standing amid the three peaks, he held the Buddha's kasaya [robe] in both
hands and, by the power of his vow, the three peaks closed together, leaving
behind the three protuberant ridges we see now.

When Maitreya comes to the world as a World-honored One he will preach
the Dharma in three assemblies. After that there will still be numerous arrogant
people who will ascend this mountain and come to the place of Kasyapa.
Maitreya will snap his fingers, and the mountain peaks will open by them-
selves, and, seeing Ka$yapa, the people will become all the more arrogant.
At this moment Mahakasyapa will hand over the kasaya [to Maitreya]. After
making a speech and paying homage [to the new buddha] Kasyapa will rise
into the air and manifest various divine transformations. А fire will burst
forth to cremate his body and in this manner he will enter nirvana. Having
seen this sight, the people will abandon their pride and then will be awakened
and realize sainthood. Therefore a stupa has been built on the mountain. On
quiet nights a burning torch can be seen from a distance, but if one goes up
the mountain nothing can be seen.

Going more than one hundred /i northeast from Kukkutapada Mountain
I reached Buddhavana Mountain with its lofty peaks and steep cliffs. Among
the rocks is a cave where the Buddha once stayed. Beside the cave is a huge
rock on which Indra and Brahma pulverized oxhead sandalwood and rubbed

234

Fascicle IX

the body of the Tathagata with the powder. Even now the rock retains a strong
fragrance. The latent spirits of the five hundred arhats remain here. Those
who have the chance to meet them may see them appearing as sramaneras
going to the villages to collect alms. Their miraculous deeds, whether secret
or manifest, are difficult to relate in detail.

Going east for more than thirty /i in the deep valleys of Buddhavana Moun-
tain, I reached Yasti Wood (known as “Stick Wood" in Chinese), full of bam-
boo that covers the mountain and valleys. Formerly there was a brahman
who heard that Sakya Buddha was sixteen feet tall, but he doubted this and
did not believe it. So he used a sixteen-foot-long long bamboo stick to meas-
ure the height of the Buddha but each time he did so, the Buddha’s height
always exceeded the length of the stick by sixteen feet. In this manner the
brahman found the Buddha’s height becoming higher and higher and he could
not ascertain his actual height. He cast off the stick and went away; the stick
took root, [giving rise to the bamboo grove]. In the wood there is a great
stupa built by King Asoka. Formerly the Tathagata showed great supernatural
powers and preached the deep and subtle Dharma for various heavenly and
human beings at this place for seven days.

In Yasti Wood there was recently ап upasaka named Jayasena (known as
Shengjun, “Victorious Army,” in Chinese), a man of the ksatriya caste of
West India. He preferred to live a plain and simple life in the mountains and
forests, and while he stayed in the world of illusion his mind dwelled in the
state of reality. He was learned in the subtle meanings of both Buddhist and
heretical texts, eloquent in discussion and perspicuous in thinking. Various
sramanas, brahmans, heretical and heterodox scholars, kings, ministers,
elders, and wealthy and powerful people approached him to seek his instruc-
tions with full conviction. His disciples could be found in six families out
of ten. When he was nearly seventy years old he still devoted himself to ardu-
ous study without fatigue. He gave up all other subjects of learning and
engaged himself solely in the study of Buddhist scriptures, exerting himself
mentally and physically day and night.

In India it is the custom to make miniature stupas, five or six inches high,
out of scented clay. Copies of scriptures are put inside these stupas, which
are known as Dharma relics. When a large number of such stupas has been
accumulated a great stupa is constructed to contain them all for perpetual

235

920b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

veneration. Whenever Jayasena was teaching his disciples, as he orally incul-
cated them with the wonderful Dharma his hands were busy making small
stupas in order to accumulate supreme bliss. At night he walked to and fro,
or worshiped and recited scriptures, or sat in quiet meditation, taking no time
to sleep or eat, and he never relaxed in the daytime or at night. Even when
he was a hundred years old he did not lessen his effort, and over a period of
thirty years he made seven kotis of Dharma relic stupas. Each time he com-
pleted one koti of stupas he constructed a great stupa to contain all the small
ones for people to make offerings to, and monks were invited to celebrate
religious functions. On each occasion a divine light shone brightly, an apparent
spiritual manifestation, and after that a light was emitted from time to time.

More than ten /i to the southwest of Yasti Wood there are two hot springs
to the south of a great mountain. The water is very hot and after the Buddha
had caused these springs he bathed in them. They are still in existence and
the flow of clear water has never diminished. People come here from far and
near to bathe and the springs may effect a cure for those who suffer from
chronic illness. Beside the springs is a stupa built at a place where the Tatha-
gata walked up and down. Going southeast for six or seven /i from Yasti
Wood, I reached a great mountain. In front of a ridge of the mountain there
is a stone stupa. In the past the Tathagata once preached the Dharma at this
place for the three months of the rains retreat. At that time King Bimbisara
wished to come to listen to the Dharma, so a passageway through the moun-
tain, with stone steps more than twenty paces wide and three or four /i in
length, was built to the site.

Three or four /i to the north of the great mountain is an isolated hill where
the hermit Vyasa once dwelled. The cave he excavated in the rock is still in
existence. He imparted his teachings to his disciples and the system of his
learning is still prevalent. Four or five /i to the northeast of this isolated hill
is a smaller isolated hill. The size of the cave excavated in the rock of the
hill is large enough to provide seats for over one thousand people. In the past
the Tathagata once preached the Dharma at this place for three months. Above
the cave is a big rock on which Indra and Brahma ground oxhead sandalwood
to rub the powder on the Buddha's body. The fragrance lingering on the rock
is still very strong.

236

Fascicle IX

At the southwest corner of the cave there is a grotto known in India as
Asura's Palace. A mischievous man, skillful in the art of sorcery, once invited
[thirteen] close friends who shared the same interests, and the group of
fourteen went together into the grotto. After going for thirty or forty /i they
came out into an open, bright place and saw city walls, terraces, and pavilions
all made of gold, silver, and lapis lazuli. When they approached the city some
young maidens standing by the city gate pleasntly and cordially welcomed
them. Then they proceeded and eventually arrived at the inner city, where
two maidservants, standing by the gate, each holding a golden tray full of
flowers and incense, greeted them and said, “You must bathe yourselves in
the pool, rub your bodies with incense, and put on garlands before you can
be admitted in the proper manner. The sorcerer may go in right away, how-
ever." The thirteen friends went to bathe but as soon as they entered the
bathing pool they forgot everything and found themselves sitting in a paddy
field on a plain thirty or forty /i to the north of the grotto.

Beside the grotto there is a viaduct more than ten paces wide and four or
five li in length. In the past, when King Bimbisara was about to go to the
place of the Buddha, rocks were cleared from the valley, precipices were
leveled to dredge the stream, and stones were piled up and cliffs excavated
to make steps leading to the place of the Buddha.

From this great mountain going east for more than sixty li, I reached the
city of Kusagrapura (known as Shangmaogongcheng, "Superior Reed Palace
City,” in Chinese). Kusagrapura, in the center of the country of Magadha,
was the capital of previous kings in ancient times. It is so called because it
abounds in superior and lucky fragrant reeds. The surrounding hills serve as
its outer walls, with a narrow path leading to the west and a passage opening
to the north. It is long from east to west, narrow from south to north, and
more than one hundred fifty /i in circuit. Karnikara (mayeng) trees grow
everywhere on the mountain paths. The flowers have a special fragrance and
are golden in color. Late in spring the whole wood becomes golden-colored.

Outside the north gate of the palace city is a stupa built at the place where
Devadatta, who was on intimate terms with Ajatasatru, loosed the intoxicated
elephant Dhanapala in an attempt to hurt the Tathagata. The Tathagata pro-
duced five lions from the tips of [his] five fingers to tame the drunken elephant
before going on his way.

237

920c

921a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

To the northeast of the place where the drunken elephant was subdued was
the spot where Sariputra attained sainthood on hearing the Dharma preached
by Asvajit (known as Masheng, “Victorious Horse,” in Chinese) Bhiksu.
When Sariputra was a layman he was well known for his high talents and
broadmindedness, and he had disciples and pupils studying under his instruc-
tion. He was once going to the great city of Rajagrha when Asvajit Bhiksu
was on almsround. Seeing Agvajit from a distance, Sariputra said to his dis-
ciples, “That man over there looks very graceful and refined in deportment.
He could not be so calm and quiet in demeanor unless he has attained sainthood
Let us wait here a moment and see where he is going.” Being an arhat, A$vajit
Bhiksu was free from mental defilements and carried himself in a gentle and
peaceful manner, holding a religious staff in hand. Sariputra said to him,
“Elder Sir, are you living in good health and happiness? Who is your teacher
and what Dharma have you realized that you look so happy and contented?"
A$vajit said, “Do you not know that the prince of King Suddhodana relin-
quished his position as a wheel-turning monarch and, out of pity for all beings
in the six paths of transmigration, he practiced austerities for six years and
attained perfect enlightenment and now possesses all-knowing wisdom? He
is my teacher. As regards the Dharma, it is neither real nor empty and it is dif-
ficult to give a systematic exposition of it. It can be fully explained only by
the buddhas. How could I, an ignorant person, discuss the matter in detail?"
A$vajit then uttered a stanza in praise of the buddha-dharma and Sariputra
attained sainthood on hearing the stanza.

Not far to the north of the place where Sariputra attained sainthood there
is a large, deep pit beside which a stupa has been built. This was the place
where Srigupta (known as Shengmi, *Auspicious Secrecy,” in Chinese)
attempted to kill the Buddha in a fire pit and with poisoned rice. Srigupta had
faith in the heretics and held fast to erroneous views. Some brahmans said to
him, “Gautama is respected by the people of the country so we have lost our
supporters. Invite him to a meal at your home. At the gate of your house dig
a big pit, light a fire in it, then cover the pit with some rotten timber and
camouflage it with dry earth. Poison should be put into all food and drink you
serve him. Even if he escapes the fire pit he will be poisoned to death.” Fol-
lowing this suggestion, Srigupta prepared a meal and poisoned the food. All
the people in the city knew that Srigupta plotted against the World-honored

238

Fascicle IX

One with an evil intention, and they all exhorted the Buddha not to go [to
his house] for the meal. The World-honored One told them, *Do not worry!
Nothing can harm the body of a tathagata." He accepted the invitation and
went, and as soon as his foot touched the doorsill the fire pit turned into a
pool full of lotus flowers growing out of clear, lucid water. Srigupta was
panic-stricken at this but said to his disciples, “Even if the Buddha has escaped
the fire pit through magical power there is still poisoned food for him." After
the World-honored One had taken the meal he preached the wonderful Dharma
and, on hearing the Dharma, Srigupta apologized for his misdeeds and took
refuge in the Buddha.

At a bend of the mountain city to the northeast of Srigupta’s fire pit is a
stupa where the great physician Jivaka (wrongly transliterated as Qipo in Chi-
nese) built a preaching hall for the Buddha. Flowers and fruit trees were
planted at the open spaces around the building, and remains of the structure
and new sprouts from the old plants can still be seen. When the Tathagata was
living in the world he stayed mostly in this hall. Beside it is the site of Jivaka’s
private residence; the remnant foundations and an old well still exist in ruins.

Going northeast for fourteen or fifteen /i from the palace city, I reached
Grdhraküta Mountain (known in China as “Vulture Peak” or “[Vulture] Ter-
race,” formerly mistranscribed as Qishejue Mountain). It links with the south
side of North Mountain, protruding all alone to a great height, where vultures
perch; it also resembles a high terrace. The verdant mountain presents a
distinct color in contrast with the sky. During the fifty years of his missionary
career the Tathagata stayed on this mountain on many occasions to preach
the wonderful Dharma.

In order to hear the Buddha’s preaching, King Bimbisara sent men to build
a road leading from the foot of the mountain to the summit, more than ten
paces wide and five or six /i in length, across valleys and over rocks, with
stones piled up into steps. There are two small stupas on the way. One is
known as the place of alighting, where the king [dismounted from his carriage]
to walk on foot, proceeding on his way; the other stupa is the place of where
ordinary people were barred from going farther [with the king]. The summit
is oblong from east to west and narrow from south to north. On the brink of
the west side of the precipice is a brick shrine, high and spacious, built in a
marvelous style, with its door opening to the east. The Tathagata preached

239

921b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the Dharma at this place many times. There is now a life-size statue of the
Tathagata in the posture of delivering a sermon.

To the east of the shrine is an oblong stone on which the Tathagata walked
to and fro. Beside it is a great rock, fourteen or fifteen feet high and more
than thirty paces in circumference. This was the place where Devadatta hurled
a stone from a distance to strike the Buddha. To the south and below the cliff
was the place where the Tathagata preached the Saddharmapundarika-sitra
in olden times. To the south of the shrine and beside a steep rock is a cave
where the Tathagata sat in meditation in days of yore. To the northwest of
the Buddha's cave there is another cave, in front of which is a huge rock
where Ananda was frightened by Mara. Once when Venerable Ananda was
sitting in meditation at this place, Mara transformed himself into a vulture
and occupied the huge rock one night in the black half of the month, flapping
his wings violently and shrieking terrifically to frighten Ananda. The venerable
monk was alarmed and terror-stricken. The Tathagata, seeing him in trouble,
stretched out a comforting hand through the stone wall of the cave, stroked
Ananda’s head, and said to him with great compassion, “It is merely a phantom
of Mara. Do not be frightened!” Reassured, Ananda felt at ease and happy
both physically and mentally. The traces left by the bird on the rock and the
hole made in the stone wall in the cave still exist despite the long passage
of time. Beside the shrine there are several caves in which Sariputra and
other great arhats practiced meditation. In front of Sariputra’s cave is a big
well; it is now dried up but the mouth of the well still exists in the ruins.

A huge flat rock in the stony gully to the northeast of the shrine is the place
where the Tathagata dried his kasaya. The stripes of the robe left on the rock
are as distinct as if they were carved on it. Beside the rock are the footprints
of the Buddha. Although the traces are obscure their size and shape are still
discernible. On top of North Mountain is a stupa at the place where the Tatha-
gata gazed at the city of Magadha and preached the Dharma for seven days.

To the west of the north gate of the mountain city is Vipula Hill. I heard
the local people say that on the north side of the cliff, southwest of the hill,
there used to be five hundred hot springs but now there are only a few score,
Not all of them are hot springs, as some are cold and others are warm. The
source of these springs is Anavatapta Lake to the south of the Snow Moun-
tains; the water flows underground to this place. It is nice and clear and tastes

240

Fascicle IX

the same as the water in its lake of origin. The water flows out in five hundred
streams through the small hot hells, and as the fire of the hells rises up it makes
the water of the springs lukewarm. All the mouths of the springs have stone
carvings in the shapes of the heads of lions or white elephants; aqueducts lead
the water below into tanks made of slabs of stone. People come from various
places in different regions to bathe in the tanks and they can often wash away
their old maladies. On both the right and the left sides of the hot springs stupas
and shrines were built with their foundations laid as closely together as the
scales of a fish, and all of these are sites where the four past buddhas sat and
walked up and down in ancient times. This place of mountains and streams
is an ideal hermitage for wise and benevolent people to take up their abodes
and there must be many recluses living in seclusion in this locality.

To the west of the hot springs is Pippala Cave, in which the World-honored
One always made his abode. The cavern behind the back wall of the cave is
Asura’s Palace. Bhiksus who practiced meditation mostly resided in this cave.
Strange phantoms in the shapes of dragons, snakes, and lions often appeared
in this cave and those who saw them were driven insane. But because this
is a well-known place where holy and spiritual people stayed, others, in admi-
ration of their edification, braved the danger and came here one after another.
Recently a bhiksu who was pure in observing the disciplinary rules and took
delight in lodging at quiet and peaceful places desired to live in this cave to
practice meditation. Someone advised him, “Do not go to that cave—it is
full of disasters and many people have been killed. It will be difficult for you
to gain mental concentration there and you might even lose your life. Heed
the warnings from previous accidents and not cause yourself regret in the
future.” The bhiksu said, “No, it is not so. I am aiming my efforts at attaining
buddhahood in order to subjugate the heavenly Mara. What mischief could
be worth mentioning?” He shook his pewter staff and went to the cave, where
he prepared an altar and recited mantras. After ten days a young woman came
out of the cavern and said to the bhiksu, “Venerable Sir, you wear the dyed
robe [of a monk] and keep the disciplinary rules so that living beings may
take refuge under you, and you cultivate wisdom and practice meditation to
be a good guide for living creatures. But now you are staying here and we
are frightened. Is this what the Tathagata has taught you to do?” The bhiksu
said, “I observe the pure rules in accordance with the Buddha’s holy teachings

241

921c

922a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

and live in seclusion in the mountains in order to avoid the hubbub and excite-
ment of social life. What 1s wrong with my being here that causes you to
accuse me?" The woman said, “When you utter mantras the sound of your
voice causes a fire burn from the outside into my dwelling and causes trouble
for my kinsfolk. Will you have pity on us and not repeat mantras any more?"
The bhiksu said, “I recite mantras for self-protection, not to do harm to others.
In the past when monks stayed here to practice meditation in the hope of
gaining sainthood, so as to save those who were suffering in the dark path
of transmigration, they were scared to death by the sight of your terriffying
appearance. It was all your fault. What do you say to this?" The woman said
in reply, “Heavy is my sin and shallow my wisdom. From now on I will live
in seclusion and keep myself within bounds. But I also hope that you, Ven-
erable Sir, will not repeat mantras.” So the bhiksu practiced meditation in
peace and was not harmed.

On Vipula Mountain is a stupa where the Tathagata formerly preached
the Dharma. Now many naked heretics stay at this place, practicing austerities
without negligence day and night, and from dawn to dusk they turn round
to watch [the sun's] movement.

Going east for two or three /i from the north side of the south cliff, on the
left side of the north gate of the mountain city, I came to a great cave in which
Devadatta sat in meditation in olden times. On a flat rock not far to the east
of this cave there are traces resembling bloodstains. Beside it is a stupa built
at the spot where a bhiksu who practiced meditation committed suicide and
attained sainthood. This bhiksu exerted mental and physical effort in practicing
meditation in seclusion but he failed to attain sainthood after long time had
passed. He blamed himself and said regretfully, “I could not attain. the perfect
stage of sainthood with nothing more to learn in a timely way. What is the
use of keeping this body of mine, which is really a burden to me?" So he
came to this rock and cut his throat. At that very moment he realized arhatship,
ascended into the air, performed miraculous transformations, produced a fire
to cremate his body, and entered nirvana. This stupa was built in memory of
his merits and to extol his sublime character.

On the cliff to the east of the place where the bhiksu [committed suicide
and] attained sainthood is a stone stupa at the spot where another bhiksu
practiced meditation, threw himself down the cliff, and gained sainthood. At

242

Fascicle IX

the time of the Buddha there was once a bhiksu who sat in the woods and
mountains, practicing meditation in order to achieve sainthood. He worked
hard for a long time but could not realize his wish. Day and night he never
forgot to fix his mind in tranquil meditation. Knowing that the fundamental
ability of the bhiksu was about to be fully developed, the Tathagata went to
render assistance to him. He came from the Bamboo Grove to the foot of the
cliff, snapped his fingers to call the bhiksu, and stood there waiting for him.
Seeing the holy monks from a distance, the bhiksu was encouraged and jumped
down the cliff with delight. As his mind was pure and he had faith in the
Buddha's words, he gained sainthood before his body reached the ground. The
World-honored One told him, “You should know it isn ow the time!" The
bhiksu then ascended into the air and showed divine manifestations. In order
to exalt the bhiksu’s pure faith this stupa was built as a memorial.

Going out of the north gate of the mountain city for about one /i, I reached
Kalandaka Bamboo Garden, in which there is now a temple, a brick chamber
built on stone bases with a door opening to the east. When the Tathagata was
living in the world he spent much time in this temple, preaching the Dharma
for the edification and guidance of the common people and converting the
secular folk. There is a life-size image of the Tathagata of recent origin. At
the beginning there was an eminent elder named Kalandaka, well known for
his nobility and enormous wealth. He presented this great Bamboo Garden
to the heretics but after he saw the Tathagata and heard the Dharma with pure
faith, he regretted that he had given his garden as a lodging for the heterodox
believers and now did not have a place to house the Teacher of Human and
Heavenly Beings. At that time various gods and spirits, moved by the elder’s
sincerity, expelled the heretics and told them, “Elder Kalandaka wishes to
build a temple for the Buddha in Bamboo Garden. You should quickly go
away so as to avoid mishap and disaster.” The heretics left the garden in
anger and resentment. The elder built a temple in the garden and when the
construction was completed he went in person to invite the Buddha, who
then accepted the gift.

To the east of Kalandaka Bamboo Garden is a stupa built by King Ajata-
Satru (known in Chinese as Weishengyuan, “Enemy Before Birth,” formerly
abridged wrongly as Asheshi). After the Tathagata's nirvana the various kings
shared his relic bones and King Ajatasatru obtained his portion, for which

243

922b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

he built this stupa with veneration to make offerings to the relics. Later, after
King A$oka had faith in the buddha-dharma, he opened this stupa and took
out the relics for building more stupas. There are still some remnant relics
in the stupa, which often emits a bright light.

In another stupa beside the one built by Ajatasatru are entombed the relics
of Venerable Ananda’s half-body. When Venerable Ananda was about to
enter nirvana he left the country of Magadha and proceeded to the city of
Vaisali. The two countries contended with each other [to keep Ananda’s
body] and were on the brink of war. Out of pity for them, Ananda divided
his body. When the king of Magadha got his portion he brought it back and
built a stupa for it at this superior place. Beside it is the spot where the Tatha-
gata formerly walked up and down. Not far from here is a stupa built at the
place where Sariputra and Maudgalaputra stayed to observe the summer
retreat during the rainy season.

Five or six /i to the southwest from the Bamboo Garden and to the north
of South Mountain, there is a large cave in a great bamboo grove. Maha-
kasyapa and nine hundred and ninety-nine great arhats stayed here to collect
the Tripitaka after the nirvana of the Tathagata. In front of the cave are the
old foundations of a hall built by King Ajatasatru for the great arhats who
took part in collecting the Dharma pitaka. In the beginning, Mahakasyapa
was sitting at leisure in a mountain forest when he suddenly saw a brilliant
light and the earth quaked. He said, “What does this strange phenomenon
augur?” He observed with his divine eye and saw that the Buddha, the World-
honored One, had entered nirvana at the twin [sala] trees. He ordered his
disciples to go with him to the city of Kusinagara and on the road they met
a brahman holding some celestial flowers in his hand. Kasyapa asked him,
“Where do you come from? Do you know where my great teacher is?” The
brahman said, “I have just come from the city of Kusinagara and I have seen
that your great teacher has entered nirvana. Human and heavenly beings in
a great assembly are making offerings to him. These flowers in my hand
were obtained from them.”

Hearing these words, Kasyapa said to his disciples, “The Sun of Wisdom
has sunk and the world is enveloped in darkness. The Good Guide has aban-
doned us and living beings will stumble and fall.” The indolent bhiksus, how-
ever, felt happy and said to each other gleefully, “Since the Tathagata has

244

Fascicle IX

entered nirvana we will be able to live an easy life. No one will reproach or
restrain us if we commit any fault.” Having heard these words, Kasyapa felt all
the more sorrowful and thought about collecting the Dharma pitaka as a guiding
principle to prevent the violation of moral regulations taught by the Buddha.
He then went to the twin [sala] trees to see and worship the Buddha.

After the demise of the King of the Dharma human and heavenly beings
lost their guide, and various great arhats also entered nirvana. At that time
Mahakasyapa considered that the Dharma pitaka should be collected in obe-
dience to the Buddha's teachings. So he ascended Mount Sumeru, struck a
big bell, and made an announcement, saying, “A Dharma event is to be con-
ducted in the city of Rajagrha. All those who have attained sainthood should

promptly assemble!” Kasyapa’s summons was carried by the sound of the
bell to all the three-thousand great chiliocosms,and, on hearing the summons,
all those who had acquired supernatural powers came to the assembly. At
that time Kasyapa told the congregation, “The Tathagata has entered nirvana
and the world is now empty. We should collect the Dharma pitaka in order
to repay the Buddha's kindness. Only a select number of people may take
part in collecting the Dharma, so that they may work in peace. We should
not flock into a crowd and upset this sublime task. Only superior people who
possess the three kinds of knowledge and the six supernatural powers, who
have heard and practiced what is not erroneous, and who are eloquent without
hindrance are invited to take part in the collection, while those who have
more to learn should return to their respective abodes." A total of nine hundred
and ninety-nine persons was selected. Ananda was not included in the list,
as he was still in the stage of learning. Mahakasyapa called to him and said,
“Because you have not become spiritually perfect it is fitting for you to leave
the holy assembly." [Ananda] said, “I attended the Tathagata for many con-
secutive years. Whenever there was a discussion on the Dharma I never
missed it. Now I am not allowed to take part in the task of collecting the
Dharma. The King of the Dharma has entered nirvana and I have lost what
I relied on.” Kasyapa told him, “Do not be vexed! It is true that you have
been the Buddha's personal attendant and heard most of his utterances, but
you are not free from the delusion of passion and your bonds of habitual illu-
sion have not yet been cut off." Ananda was tongue-tied and departed. He
went to a solitary place, desiring to gain the perfect stage of having nothing

245

922c

923a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

more to learn. Although he worked hard he could not realize his ambition.
Feeling tired, he went to take a nap and at the moment just before his head
touched the pillow he instantly attained arhatship. He returned to the assembly
hall and knocked at the door to announce his arrival. Kasyapa inquired,
*Have you cleared off all your bonds? You should be able to utilize your
supernatural powers and come in without opening the door." Accordingly,
Ananda entered through the keyhole. After paying homage to the monks he
withdrew and resumed his seat. This event occurred on the first full-moon
day of the summer retreat.

Then Каѕуара made a declaration, “Please listen to me attentively: Ananda
was praised by the Tathagata for his all-around knowledge—let him collect
the Sutra pitaka. Upali is well known to all for his clear understanding of
the monastic rules—let him collect the Vinaya pitaka. And I, Kasyapa, shall
collect the Abhidharma pitaka.” When the three months of the rainy season
came to an end the collection of the Tripitaka was completed. Because
Mahakasyapa was the elder among the monks and presided over the assembly,
it became known as the Assembly of the Elder.

To the northwest of the place where Mahakasyapa collected the Tripitaka is
the spot where Ananda came and sat in meditation and attained arhatship after
he had been criticized by the monks and not allowed to take part in the gathering.
He was permitted to join in the work after realizing sainthood.

More than twenty /i to the northwest of the spot where Ananda attained
sainthood is a stupa constructed by King Ašoka at the place where the great
assembly of monks made their collection of the Buddha's teachings. Hundreds
and thousands of arhats and ordinary monks, who were not admitted to the
assembly headed by Mahakasyapa, gathered here. They said among them-
selves, “When the Tathagata was living in the world we all studied under
one teacher. Now that the King of the Dharma has entered nirvana we have
been discriminated against. In order to repay the Buddha's kindness we
should collect the Dharma pitaka.” So the ordinary and saintly monks gathered
together and sages and wise people joined the meeting. They collected the
Sutra pitaka, the Vinaya pitaka, the Abhidharma pitaka, the Miscellaneous
pitaka, and the Dharant pitaka as a separate fivefold pitaka. Because this
collection was done by both ordinary and saintly monks in the assembly, it
Is called the Collection of the Great Congregation.

246

Fascicle IX

Going north for more than two hundred paces from Bamboo Temple I
reached Kalandaka Pool. Formerly the Tathagata preached the Dharma at
this place. The water was clear and clean and possessed the eight virtues.
After the Buddha's nirvana the pool dried up completely. Two or three /i to
the northwest of Kalandaka Pool is a stupa built by King Asoka, more than
sixty feet high. Beside it is a stone pillar carved with an inscription narrating
the events of stupa's construction, which is more than fifty feet tall and has
the figure of an elephant on top.

Not far to the northeast of the stone pillar is the city of Rajagrha (known
in Chinese as Wangshe, *Royal House"). The outer walls have been destroyed
and there is no trace of them left; the inner walls, though ruined, still have
foundations of some height. It is more than twenty /i in circuit with a gate
on each side.

After King Bimbisara made the city of Kusagrapura his capital the reg-
istered inhabitants frequently suffered the calamity of fire. If one family was
careless the neighbors on all four sides would also be involved in the disaster.
The people were busily engaged in preventing fires and had no leisure to
manage their properties. So they harbored a grudge about the situation and
lived uneasily in their abodes. The king said, “It is due to my lack of virtue
that my subjects suffer adversities. What meritorious deeds should I do to
avert their misfortune?" His ministers said, *O Great King! You rule over
the country with mild virtue and magnanimity, and your governance and
education are brilliant and discerning. Because the fires are caused by the
imprudence of the humble people, a strict law should be proclaimed to prevent
future accidents. Whenever a fire occurs the one who has caused the accident
should be thoroughly investigated and the chief offender should be punished
by exile to a sitavana, a place in which corpses are disposed. Such places
are regarded by the people as inauspicious so no one would wilingly visit
them. After someone has been banished to a sitavana he will be [like] nothing
other than a discarded corpse. The people will be more cautious and protect
themselves in order to avoid living in such a shameful spot.” The king said,
“Good! Make an announcement to notify all the inhabitants.”

Soon after the palace itself caught fire and the king said to his ministers,
“I must move my lodgings.” He ordered the prince to act as regent to attend
to state affairs and for the sake of upholding the impartiality of the national

247

923b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

law he made up his mind to go live [in the cemetery]. At that time, hearing
that King Bimbisara was living in a cemetery in the wilderness, the king of
Vaisalt mustered his troops and made ready to launch a surprise attack.
According to information sent back by his frontier guards, a city had been
built [at the cemetery], called the City of the Royal House, and the king had
moved there. Government officials and common people had also moved to
live in the new city. It is also said that this city was built at the time of King
Ajatasatru. When Prince Ajatašatru ascended the throne he made this city
his capital, but after King Ašoka moved the capital to Pataliputra he gave
Rajagrha to the brahmans. Hence there are no ordinary inhabitants in this
city, only less than a thousand brahman families.

At the southwest corner of the palace city there are two small monasteries
where guest monks from different countries may make stay in the course of
their travels. This was a place where the Buddha once preached the Dharma.
Further to the northwest is a stupa built at the native place of Elder Jyotiska
(known in Chinese as Xingli, “Heavenly Body,” formerly mistranscribed as
Shutijia). On the left side of the road outside the south gate of the city is a stupa
at the spot where the Tathagata preached the Dharma and ordained Rahula.

From here going north for more than thirty /;, I reached Nalanda Monastery
(known in Chinese as Shiwuyan, “Insatiable in Almsgiving"). I heard some
old people say that in the mango grove to the south of the monastery there
was a pond where a dragon named Nalanda lived, hence the name of the
monastery built beside the pond. In facts, when the Tathagata was practicing
bodhisattva deeds in a former life he was a great king who founded his capital
at this place. Because he had compassion for living beings and took delight
in almsgiving, the people called him “Insatiable in Almsgiving" in praise of
his virtue, and this monastery was named after this appellation. The land for
building the monastery was originally a mango grove; five hundred merchants
purchased it with ten kotis of gold coins and presented it to the Buddha. The
Buddha preached the Dharma at this place for three months and thereupon
the merchants attained sainthood. Not long after the Buddha's nirvana,
Sakraditya (known as Tiri, “Sun of Indra,” in Chinese), a former king of this
country, who esteemed the One Vehicle and honored the Triple Gem, selected
this propitious spot by divination and constructed the monastery here. When
the construction work began the dragon's body was pierced, and a nirgrantha

248

Fascicle IX

(naked Jain ascetic) who was a good diviner saw this and predicted, “This
is a propitious site. The monastery built on it will certainly be prosperous
and become the standard for all the five parts of India. It will continue to
thrive for more than a thousand years. Students of future generations in this
monastery will easily gain achievements in their studies but most of them
will spit blood, because the dragon has been injured."

Sakraditya’s son, King Buddhagupta (known as Juehu, “Buddha-protected,”
in Chinese), succeeded to the throne to continue the good works and built
another monastery to the south of the original one. King Tathagatagupta
(known as Rulai, “Thus-come,” in Chinese) earnestly followed the example
of his predecessors and built another monastery to the east. After ascending
the throne, King Baladitya (known as Youri, “Morning Sun") built a fourth
one to the northeast. After the construction work was completed a festive
meeting was held to celebrate the occasion, at which both prominent and
Obscure persons were entertained with sincerity and holy as well as ordinary
monks were invited. Monks from the five parts of India traveled long distances
to attend the meeting. Two monks arrived late, after all the participants had
been seated, and they were led to the third story. Someone asked them, “When
the king prepared the feast he first sent invitations to the holy and ordinary
monks. Why have you two virtuous ones arrived so late, and where have you
come from?" They said, “We come from China. Because our teacher is ill we
served him his meal before we started the journey. But we were invited by
the king and we have come to attend the meeting from a great distance."

The inquirer was surprised to hear this and promptly made a report to the
king, who, knowing that the two monks were saints, went in person to greet
them. He arrived at the storied pavilion too late, however, and the two monks
had already gone somewhere unknown to the others. The king's faith was
deepened and he eventually relinquished the monarchy to become a homeless
monk. After he became a monk he was the lowest in rank in the community
of monks and this made him unhappy and discontented. He thought, “When
I was a king I used to occupy the uppermost position but now as a monk I
am relegated to a humble position behind all the other monks." He went to
tell the monks how he felt, and they then called a meeting and made a rule
that those who were not yet fully ordained could establish their seniority
according to age, which became a tradition peculiar to this monastery.

249

923c

924a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

This king's son, Vajra (known as Jingang, “Diamond,” in Chinese), was
a man of firm faith. After his succession to the throne he built a monastery
to the west. Later, a king of Central India built another great monastery to
the north and constructed a lofty enclosure with one gate for all the monas-
teries. Because the entire complex was constructed by kings of successive
dynasties, the buildings were erected by the most exquisitely skilled carpenters,
employing such tools as burins and curved chisels to make the architectural
complex a really magnificent sight. In the great monastery built by King
Sakraditya there is an image of the Buddha. Forty monks are assigned to
take their meal every day in this monastery in honor of the almsgivers' kind-
ness. There are several thousand monks, all of whom are brilliant scholars
of high learning; those whose virtue is esteemed by their contemporaries and
whose reputation is known in foreign lands number in the several hundreds.
They are pure in observing the monastic regulations and faultless in conduct
according to the Vinaya rules. The monks have strict restrictions and they
are all chaste and spotless, so that they are looked up to as exemplars in the
various countries in India. They always ask for more instructions and deliberate
on the abstruse theories incessantly all day long. They admonish each other
day and night and extend mutual help between old and young. Anyone who
did not engage in discussion of the profound teachings of the Tripitaka would
be ashamed of themselves. Thus foreign scholars who wish to win fame
come here to clarify the dubious points they found in their learning before
they can join the ranks of the well-reputed. Some travel about citing the name
of this monastery to fraudulently gain honor and consideration. Most of the
people from different regions and countries who desire to enter this monastery
to hold discussions are barred from entering the establishment after a pre-
liminary interrogation by the gatekeeper. Only those who are well versed in
both ancient and contemporary learning can gain admittance. The visiting
students carry on debates with the resident monks but seven or eight out of
ten flee in defeat. The remaining two or three learned scholars may also be
deflated of their arrogance since their reputation can be damaged by questions
raised later by the resident monks. Highly talented and versatile sages endowed
with retentive memory and good virtue maintain the glory of the monastery
and follow in the wake of their predecessors. Dharmapala and Candragupta,
who won their fame in the scope of the bequeathed teachings of the Buddha;

250

Fascicle IX

Gunamati and Sthiramati, whose good repute is well known even today;
Prabhamitra, skilled in theoretical discussion; Visesamitra, fluent in elevated
conversation; Jhanacandra of elegant demeanor and perspicacious discern-
ment; and Silabhadra of sublime virtue and profound insight—all were men
of supreme quality, well known to all, whose virtuous deeds excelled those
of their forerunners. They are well versed in ancient learning, each having
composed more than ten widely popular treatises that are highly valued
even today.

The sacred traces around the monastery are counted by the hundreds, of
which I shall cite just two or three as brief examples.

Not far to the west of the monastery is a temple where the Tathagata once
stayed for three months and spoke extensively on the wonderful Dharma for
various devas and people. More than a hundred paces to the south is a small
stupa at the place where a bhiksu coming from a distance saw the Buddha.
Once a bhiksu approached from a distance and met the Tathagata and the
holy monks at this place. With a mind of veneration, the bhiksu prostrated
himself [before the Tathagata] and wished to be a universal monarch. Seeing
him the Tathagata told the assembly of monks, “This bhiksu is very pitiful.
He is a man of great bliss and deep virtue with a mind of firm faith, and he
would have realized buddhahood very soon if he had aimed at [that goal].
But he wishes only to become a universal monarch and he will surely get
the reward in his future lives and be a universal monarch for as many lifetimes
as [there are] atoms of dust from the place wher he now prostrates down to
the gold wheel beneath the earth. Because of his addiction to worldly pleasure
he is far removed from the realization of sainthood.”

To the south is a standing statue of Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva. Sometimes
it has been seen proceeding to the Buddha’s temple and circumambulating
it to the right with a censer in its hand. In the stupa to the south of the statue
of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva are kept hair and fingernail [relic]s of the
Buddha, shaven and clipped over a three-month period. Sick people are often
cured of their illnesses by circumambulating the stupa. The stupa beside the
tank at the outside of the west wall of the enclosure was the place where a
heretic, holding a small bird in his hand, asked the Buddha about the problem
of life and death. More than fifty paces further to the southeast, inside the
enclosure, is an extraordinary tree, eight or nine feet high with two branches.

251

924b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

The Tathagata once chewed a piece of willow twig [to clean his teeth] and threw
the used twig to the ground, where it took root and grew into this tree. Although
a long time has passed the branches never increase or decrease in number. Next,
to the east is a great temple more than two hundred feet in height. The Tathagata
once spoke on various wonderful Dharmas at this place for four months. More
than one hundred paces further to the north is a temple in which is enshrined
an image of Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva. When pure devotees come to make
offerings they see it at various places, either standing beside the gate or under
the eaves outside the temple, as it has no fixed position. Both monks and laypeo-
ple from different countries come to make offerings to the image. To the north
ofthe temple of Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva is a great temple, more than three
hundred feet high, built by King Baladitya. Its size and ornamentation and the
Buddha's image within are similar to those of the great temple at the bodhi tree.
The stupa to the northeast is the place where the Tathagata once expounded the
wonderful Dharma for seven days, while to the northwest is a sitting place of
the four past buddhas. To the south is Brass Temple, constructed by King
Siladitya, though the work is unfinished. According to the drawing of the building
when completed it will be one hundred feet in height. Further to the east, more
than two hundred paces outside the enclosure, is a copper image of the Buddha
in the standing posture, over eighty feet tall and sheltered by a pavilion as high
as six stories. It was made by King Pürnavarman in olden times.

Two or three /i north of the copper image of the Buddha made by King
Pürnavarman is a brick temple in which is enshrined an image of Tara Bodhi-
sattva, tall in size with an obvious spiritual manifestation. Profuse offerings
are made to the image every New Year's Day and the kings, ministers, and
wealthy people of neighboring regions, holding fragrant incense and flowers
as well as precious canopies and parasols, come to join the seven-day cere-
mony performed amid the harmonious music of bells, stone chimes, and
string and wind instruments. Inside the south gate of the enclosure is a large
well. Formerly when the Buddha was living in the world a group of merchants
who were suffering from heat and thirst came to this place and the World-
honored One pointed at the earth and said that water might be obtained there.
The lord of the merchants dug into the ground with the axle of a cart and
water gushed out from the depression in the earth. All those who drank the
water and heard the Dharma became enlightened and attained sainthood.

252

Fascicle IX

Going southwest for eight or nine /i from the monastery I reached the
town of Kolika, in which there is a stupa built by King Asoka. This was the
birthplace of Venerable Maudgalaputra. Beside it is another stupa built at
the spot where the venerable monk entered final nirvana; his relic bones were
entombed in it. Maudgalaputra was born into a great brahman family and
was a close friend of Sariputra since their youth. Sariputra was noted for his
brilliant talent, while Venerable Maudgalaputra was reputed for his fine dis-
cernment. They were equals in genius and wisdom and were always together,
whether traveling or staying at a place, having forged a lifelong friendship,
and they vowed to take similar actions in their activities. Both of them grew
disgusted with the world and renounced their homes together, serving Sañjaya
as their teacher. When Sariputra met with the arhat Aśvajit he heard the
Dharma from the latter and attained sainthood. He immediately repeated
what he had heard from the arhat to Venerable Maudgalaputra, who upon
hearing the Dharma became enlightened and realized the first stage of saint-
hood. Maudgalaputra came to the place of the Buddha with his two hundred
and fifty disciples. When the World-honored One saw him from a distance
he pointed at the newcomer and told the assembly of monks, “That person
coming from over there will become the disciple most notable for his mirac-
ulous powers." After arriving at the Buddha's place Maudgalaputra requested
that he be admitted into the brotherhood of the Dharma. The World-honored
One replied to him, “Welcome, bhiksu! By living a pure life you will be free
from the bondage of suffering." At the sound ofthese words Maudgalaputra's
beard and hair fell off and his secular garments changed. He observed the dis-
ciplinary rules in a pure manner and behaved in the proper way. After seven
days he became free from the bondage of rebirth, attained arhatship, and
gained miraculous powers.

Three or four /i to the east of the Maudgalaputra's birthplace is a stupa at
the spot where King Bimbisara welcomed the Buddha. After the Tathagata
first realized buddhahood he sensed that the people of Magadha longed to
meet him. At King Bimbisara's invitation he dressed himself properly, took
up his almsbowl one morning, and went to the city of Rajagrha accompanied
by a thousand bhiksus. These bhiksus had formerly been brahmans who wore
their hair in the shape of a conch on the top of their heads but in admiration
of the Dharma they had donned the dyed robes to follow the Buddha. At that

253

924c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

time Indra transformed himself into a manava (a young brahman) wearing
a topknot in the shape of a conch; he held a golden vase in his left hand,
carried a precious staff in his right hand, and walked in the air four fingers?
[height] above the ground, leading the way for the Buddha among the con-
gregation. King Bimbisara of the country of Magadha, together with the
brahmans, elders, and laypeople of his country, hundreds and thousands in
number, came out of the city of Rajagrha to greet the group of holy monks.

Going southeast for more than twenty /i from the place where King
Bimbisara welcomed the Buddha, I reached the town of Kalapinaka, in
which there is a stupa built by King Asoka. This was the birthplace of Ven-
erable Sariputra. The well is still in existenceand beside it is a stupa built
at the spot where the venerable monk entered nirvana;d his relic bones are
preserved in the stupa.

Venerable Sariputra was born in a great brahman's family. His father was
a highly talented scholar of extensive knowledge, with deep insight into what
was subtle and abstruse and well read in various texts. His wife once had a
dream and told it to her husband, saying, “Last night I had a dream in which
I saw a strange man clad in armor holding a diamond club in his hand. He
demolished all the mountains, except the one by which he calmly stood."
Her husband said, “It is a good dream. You will give birth to a son who will
be a learned scholar in the world and defeat all sastra masters and refute
their theories. He will be inferior to only one person and will become that
person's disciple." In the course of her pregnancy the woman suddenly
became wise and intelligent and could carry on a discussion eloquently
without faltering in her speech. When Venerable Sariputra was eight years
old his name spread far to the four quarters. He was honest and guileless by
nature and had a mind of compassion. He destroyed the bondage of rebirth
and achieved wisdom. He was Maudgalaputra's friend since their youth.
They detested the world but did not know where to take refuge. So they went
to the place of the heretic Sañjaya for spiritual practice and cultivation, but
they told each other, “What we are learning here is not the ultimate truth; it
cannot free us from the scope of suffering. We should each go by a [different]
route to seek a brilliant teacher. Whichever of us tastes the sweet dew first
must tell the other so that he may also enjoy it."

254

Fascicle IX

At that time the arhat A$vajit, almsbowl in hand, was going to the city on
almsround. Seeing that he was peaceful and elegant in demeanor, Sariputra
asked him, “Who is your teacher?" [A$vajit replied,] “The prince of the
Sakya clan who, weary of the world, renounced his home and achieved full
enlightenment, is my teacher.” Sariputra said, “What Dharma did he preach?
Can I hear of it?” [A$vajit said,] “I have just started receiving instructions
and I have not yet mastered the profound teachings." Sariputra said, “Please
tell me just as much as you have heard." A$vajit then expounded the Dharma
as was suitable for the occasion. On hearing the Dharma Sariputra attained
the first stage of sainthood and, together with his two hundred and fifty dis-
ciples, he came to the place of the Buddha. When the World-honored One
saw him from a distance he pointed at him and told the assembly of monks,
"[That person] will be the foremost in wisdom among all my disciples." Sari-
putra saluted the Buddha and wished to follow the buddha-dharma. The
World-honored One said to him, “Welcome, bhiksu!” Hearing these words,
Sariputra became a fully ordained monk and half a month later, when he
heard the Buddha preaching the Dharma to the long-nailed brahman, he
became enlightened and realized arhatship.

Later, when Ananda heard about the time of the Buddha's [approaching]
nirvana, he spread the news to many people, who were aggrieved and sad-
dened. Sariputra too was deeply saddened by the news. He could not bear
the idea of the Buddha entering nirvana so he asked permission of the World-
honored One to allow him to die first. The World-honored One told him,
“You should know that this is the right time for you to do so." [Sariputra]
then departed from his disciples and returned to his native place. His attendant
Sramanera informed the inhabitants in the city and the towns of Sariputra’s
intention. King Ajatasatru and the people of his country came in a great hurry
and assembled together like clouds. Sariputra expounded the Dharma exten-
sively for them and, after hearing the Dharma, the audience dispersed. Late
in the night he concentrated his mind and entered the samadhi of complete
cessation of sensation and perception. When he came out of the samadhi he
passed into nirvana.

Four or five /i to the southeast of the town of Kalapinaka is a stupa at the
place where the disciples of Venerable Sariputra entered nirvana. It is also

2355

925a

925b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

said that at the time of Kasyapa Buddha the great arhat Trikoti (koti meaning
*one hundred million" in Chinese) entered final nirvana at this same place.

Going to the east for more than thirty /i from the stupa of Sariputra’s dis-
ciples, I reached Indrasailaguha Mountain (known as Dishiku, “Indra’s Cave,”
in Chinese). The mountain valleys are deep and quiet, with exuberant flowers
and trees. There are two prominent peaks on the mountain's summit. On the
south cliff of the west peak 15 a large cave, wide but not high, where formerly
the Tathagata often stayed. In those days Indra carved marks on the rock
concerning forty-two dubious points about which he inquired of the Buddham,
who gave him explanations. The marks are still there. The present image [in
the cave] was made in imitation of the posture of the Buddha as he was on
that occasion. All of those who entered the cave to worship the image was
inspired with a feeling of awe and veneration. On the crag of the mountain
are sites where the four past buddhas sat and walked back and forth. On the
east peak is a monastery. The local people say that at night the monks of this
monastery often see lamps and candles burning brightly before the image in
the cave on the east peak.

In front of the monastery on the east peak of Indrasailaguha Mountain is
a stupa named Hamsa (“Wild Goose"). The monks of this monastery once
practiced the Hinayana teachings. Because these are gradual teachings, the
monks were allowed to eat the three kinds of pure meat and this habit persisted.
Later, after the three kinds of pure meat had become unobtainable, a bhiksu,
while taking a walk, saw a flock of wild geese flying overhead. He said in
jest, “Today the monks are running short of food for their midday meal. The
Mahasattva should know that this is the right time [to make a sacrifice]!”
Before he had finished speaking one of the wild geese flew back and dropped
dead on the ground in front of the monk. Seeing this incident, the bhiksu
related it to all the monks, who were sad to hear it and said among themselves,
“The Tathagata preached the Dharma according to the faculty of understanding
of those in the audience, in order to guide and induce them to enlightenment.
We have been stupidly following the gradual teachings. The Mahayana tenets
are the right principles and we should correct our former behavior and follow
the holy teachings. This wild goose is our clever guide and it came to admonish
us. Its great virtue should be glorified and the event transmitted to posterity.”

256

Fascicle IX

Thus a stupa was built in memory of its spirit of sacrifice, and the dead goose
was buried under it.

Going northeast for one hundred and fifty or sixty /i from Indrasailaguha
Mountain, I reached Kapotaka (“Pigeon”) Monastery where more than two
hundred monks lived; they study the teachings of the Sarvastivada school.
To the east of the monastery is a stupa built by King Asoka. The Buddha
once preached the Dharma to the monks at this place for an entire night.
Meanwhile a bird catcher was catching some of the feathered tribe with a
net in the wood but he failed to get any birds for a whole day. He said, “I
lack good fortune and whatever I do is always adverse for me." He came to
the place of the Buddha and declared, “Today the Tathagata is preaching the
Dharma here and I am unable to catch any birds with my net. What should
I do to feed my starving wife and children?" The Tathagata told him, “Build
a fire! I shall give you food.” The Tathagata then took the form of a pigeon
and burned himself to death in the fire. The bird catcher took the dead pigeon
home and ate it with his wife and children. Later, he returned to the place of
the Buddha, who converted him in an appropriate way. On hearing the Dharma
the bird catcher repented of his misdeeds, made a fresh start in life by relin-
quishing his home for spiritual cultivation, and realized sainthood. Thus the
monastery constructed at this place was named Pigeon Monastery.

Two or three /i to the south of Kapotaka Monastery is an isolated hill that
is tall and precipitous, covered by splendid flowers, with luxuriant trees and
clear streams. On the hill there are many beautifully constructed temples and
shrines with most exquisite carvings and engravings. In the central temple an
image of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva is enshrined; it is small in size but august
and mystical in spiritual manifestation. The figure holds a lotus flower in one
hand and has a small statuette on its forehead. Some people once fasted and
prayed earnestly for seven days, a fortnight, or even one month here, wishing
to see the bodhisattva in person. Someone who had gained spiritual influence
saw [Avalokite$vara] Bodhisattva, a majestic and stately figure with a bright
radiance, come out of the image to give him comfort and advice.

In former times, the king of the country of Simhala in the South Sea looked
in his mirror one morning but he did not see his own reflection, and instead
saw the image of this bodhisattva in a wood of tāla trees on a small hill in

257

925c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the country of Magadha in Jambudvipa. Deeply delighted, the king set out
to seek the image. When he came to this hill he found that the image here
was similar to the one he had seen in his mirror, so he built the temple and
made various offerings to the image. The kings of later times followed his
example and built more temples and shrines beside it; offerings of incense,
flowers, and music were made incessantly.

Going southeast for more than forty /i from the image of Avalokite$vara
Bodhisattva on the isolated hill, I reached a monastery with more than fifty
monks, all of whom studied the Hinayana teachings. In front of the monastery
is a great stupa that revealed miraculous signs many times. Formerly the Buddha
preached the Dharma to Brahma and others at this place for seven days. Beside
it are ruins where the three past buddhas sat and walked back and forth.

Going northeast for more than seventy /i from the monastery I reached a
big village south of the Ganges River, with a dense population of prosperous
villagers. There are several deva temples, all beautifully adorned with engrav-
ings. Not far to the southeast is a great stupa at the place where the Buddha
once preached the Dharma for one night.

Going east from here through mountains and forests for over one hundred
li, I reached Lavanila Village. The great stupa in front of the monastery here
was built by King Asoka. The Buddha once preached the Dharma here for
three months. Two or three /i to the north of this place is a large lake more
than thirty /і in circuit with lotus flowers in four colors blooming all four
seasons of the year.

Going east from here through great mountains and forests for more than two
hundred /i, I reached the country of Iranaparvata (in the domain of Central
India).
End of Fascicle IX of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

258

Fascicle X

Seventeen Countries, from
Iranaparvata to Malaküta

1. The Country of Iranaparvata 10. The Country of Kongoda

2. The Country of Campa 11. The Country of Kalinga

3. The Country of Kajangala 12. The Country of Kosala

4. The Country of Pundravardhana 13. The Country of Andhra

5. The Country of Kamarüpa 14. The Country of Dhanakataka
6. The Country of Samatata 15. The Country of Cola

7. The Country of Tamralipti 16. The Country of Dravida

8. The Country of Karnasuvarna 17. The Country of Malaküta

9. The Country of Uda

The country of Iranaparvata is more than three thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city is more than twenty /i in circuit. Agriculture is prosperous, and
both flowers and fruit thrive. The climate is mild and pleasant and the people
are simple and honest by social custom. There are more than ten monasteries
with over four thousand monks, most of whom study the Dharma of the Hina-
yana Sammitiya school. There are more than twenty deva temples and heretics
live together. Recently the king of a neighboring country deposed the ruler of
this country and presented the capital city as a gift to the monks. Two monasteries
have been built in this city, with less than a thousand monks living in each;
they study the Hinayana teachings of the Sarvastivada school.

Beside the capital city and near the Ganges River is Irana Mountain,
enshrouded in mist and clouds, casting the sun and moon into shade. Both
ancient and contemporary anchorites and holy persons come here one after
another to practice meditation. Now there is a deva temple that still follows
the rules handed down from past generations. The Tathagata once also lived
at this place and widely spoke on the wonderful Dharma for various devas
and people. To the south of the capital city is a stupa where the Tathagata
preached the Dharma for three months. Beside the stupa are ruins where the
three past buddhas sat and walked up and down.

259

926a

926b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Not far to the west of the ruins where the three buddhas walked up and
down is a stupa built at the place where the bhiksu SrutaviméSatikoti (“Hearing
Two Hundred [and Twenty?] Кой,” formerly mistranslated as “Koti Ears")
was born. In the old days in this city there was an elder who was enormously
wealthy and powerful. In his old age a son was born to him and when someone
brought him the news he gave the messenger two hundred Кой of gold coins
as a reward, so his son was named Two Hundred Kotis on Hearing [the News].
When the child was growing up his feet never touched the earth and thus
hair grew out of his soles to a length of about one foot, soft, lustrous, and
golden in color. The child was dearly beloved and all kinds of toys were pro-
vided for him. From his residence up to the Snow Mountains posts were set
up in a chain, with pages and servants stationed all along the way. Whenever
any good medicine was needed a message was passed on by the servants to
get the required material, which was then relayed back through the posts in
good time. Such was the wealth of this family.

The Tathagata, knowing that the good roots of the young man were about
to sprout, instructed Maudgalaputra to convert him. But on arriving at the
gate of the elder's house he had no pretext for making an announcement.
Tthe members of the elder's family were sun-worshipers and paid homage
toward the east in the morning every day. At that moment, the venerable
monk, employing his supernatural powers, descended from the disk of the
sun and stood before them. Assuming that [Maudgalaputra] was the sun god,
the elder's son offered him some fragrant rice. The monk took the rice back
home and its fragrance permeated the city of Rajagrha. King Bimbisara, sur-
prised by the strange scent, ordered a messenger to find out the cause, and
it was discovered that it came from the rice brought back from the elder's
house by Maudgalaputra of Bamboo Grove Temple. The king thus came to
know that the elder's son had such a marvelous foodstuff and summoned
him. On receiving the king's order, the elder considered what was the safe
way for his son to go. There might be the danger of a storm if he sailed in a
boat, and if he went in a cart or riding an elephant the cart might be overturned
or the elephant might stumble. So the elder had a canal cut, leading from his
house up to the city of Rajagrha, which was filled with mustard seeds and a
boat was placed in the canal and towed by a long rope. [In this manner] the
elder's son reached the city of Rajagrha. He first went to pay homage to the

260

Fascicle X

World-honored One, who told him, *King Bimbisara summoned you because
he wished to see the hair growing from the soles of your feet. When you sit
you should cross your legs to allow the king see the hair. Stretching out one's
legs toward a king would incur the death penalty according to the law of the
country." With this instruction, the elder's son left and when the king wished
to see the hair [the young man] was ushered into his presence. The young
man sat down with crossed legs. The king was pleased by his proper etiquette
and became deeply fond of him. On his way back home the young man went
to the Buddha's place again. The Tathagata was preaching the Dharma for
the edification of the listeners. Hearing the Dharma, the elder's son was awak-
ened and became a monk on the spot. He worked strenuously for spiritual
cultivation in order to achieve sainthood. He walked up and down in medi-
tation so much that his feet bled. The World-honored One told him, “Good
man, when you were a layman at home did you know how to play the zither?”
“Yes,” he replied. “If that is so, I shall cite it in a parable. When the strings
[of a zither] are too tight the sound will not harmonize well, but if they are
too loose the sound will be inharmonious and ungraceful. Only when the
strings are neither too tight nor too loose can one produce melodious music.
It is the same with spiritual cultivation. When you are too strenuous [in your
practice] you will become fatigued and dispirited, but if you are too relaxed
you will become sluggish in disposition and forget your ambition.” [The
young man] accepted the Buddha’s advice and worshiped him by circum-
ambulating him. Before long he gained sainthood.

To the west side of the country is the Ganges River. Proceeding to the
south from here, I reached a small isolated hill with lofty peaks. The Buddha
once stayed here three months during the rainy season and subjugated the
yaksa Bakula. On a big rock below the cliff southeast of the hill is the trace
where the Buddha once sat. It is incised into the rock about one inch deep,
and is five feet two inches long and two feet one inch wide. A stupa was built
there. On a rock further to the south is the trace where the Buddha placed
his kundikà (bathing waterpot). The trace is about one inch deep, in the pattern
of an eight-petaled flower. Not far to the southeast of the trace of the Buddha's
seat is a footprint of the yaksa Bakula, one foot five or six inches long, seven
or eight inches wide, and less than two inches deep. Behind the footprint is
a stone image of the seated Buddha, six or seven feet in height. Next, not far

261

926c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

to the west is a place where the Buddha once walked up and down. At the
top of the hill is the old chamber where the yaksa once lived. Next, to the
south is a footprint of the Buddha, one foot eight inches long, more than six
inches wide, and about half an inch deep. There is a stupa built over the foot-
print. Formerly the Tathagata subjugated the yaksa and bade him not to kill
people to eat their flesh. [The yaksa] respectfully accepted the Buddha's
admonition and was later reborn in heaven. West of here there are six or
seven hot springs, the water of which is extremely hot. In the mountains and
forests in the southern part of the country there are many wild elephants with
enormous bodies.

From here going east for more than three hundred /i along the southern bank
of the Ganges, I reached the country of Campa (in the domain of Central
India). The country of Campa is over four thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city, with the Ganges River flowing at its back in the north, is more than forty
li in circuit. The land is low and humid and produces rich crops. The climate
is moderately warm and the people are simple and honest by social custom.
There are several score of monasteries, most of which are dilapidated, and
the monks, numbering over two hundred, study the Hinayana teachings.
There are more than twenty deva temples and the heretics live together. The
city wall of the capital was built with bricks to the height of several tens of
feet. The foundation of the wall is raised above the ground and defenders
can repulse an enemy from high and perilous positions.

When human beings first appeared in the world at the beginning of the
kalpa, they lived in the wilderness or in caves, as they did not know how to
build palaces or houses. Later an apsara (female heavenly being) descended
from the heavens and dwelled among humankind and, after bathing in the
Ganges River with self-admiration, she became pregnant through spiritual
influence and gave birth to four sons. They divided Jambudvipa, each occu-
pying a district, built capital cities and established towns, and drew demar-
cations over their territories. The city [of Campa] was the capital of one of
the four sons and it was the first city ever built in Jambudvipa.

One hundred forty or fifty li to the east of the city is a solitary islet with
lofty peaks in the southern part of the Ganges. On top of a peak is a deva
temple, where a deity often gives spiritual responses to prayers. Caves are

262

Fascicle X

excavated in the cliffs and water flows into ponds. There are flowery woods
and exotic trees. With its huge rocks and perilous peaks this islet is the abode
of wise and benign dwellers. It is so attractive that visitors sometimes forget
to go home. There are thousands of wild elephants and other fierce animals
roaming about in packs in the mountains and jungles in the southern region
of the country.

From here going east for more than four hundred Ji, I reached the country of
Kajangala (the local name being Kayangala, in the domain of Central India).
The country of Kajangala is more than two thousand /i in circuit. The land,
irrigated by subterranean water, produces rich crops. The climate is humid
and the social customs are agreeable. Brilliant talent is highly valued and
learning is greatly esteemed. There are six or seven monasteries with more
than three hundred monks. There are ten deva temples and the heretics live
together. A few hundred years ago the royal clan died out and the country
fell under the control of a neighboring state. Thus the capital city has been
lying in ruins and most of the inhabitants live in villages and towns. This is
why when King Siladitya traveled to East India, on his arrival he built a
palace out of thatch for the management of state affairs, and when he left the
place he set a fire to burn down the thatched house. In the southern region
of the country there are many wild elephants. In the northern region, not far
from the Ganges River, is a great high terrace built out of bricks and stone.
The foundation of the terrace is broad and tall and is adorned with exquisite
engravings. All around the terrace are carved statues of various holy persons,
and the buddha images are different from the figures of heavenly beings.

From here crossing the Ganges to the east and after traveling for six hundred
li, | reached the country of Pundravardhana (in the domain of Central India).
The country of Pundravardhana is more than four thousand /i in circuit and
its capital city is over thirty /i in circuit. The numerous inhabitants are wealthy.
Water tanks, guesthouses, and flowery woods are interspersed. The land is
low and moist and crops are abundant. Breadfruit is plentiful but nevertheless
expensive. This fruit is as large as a white gourd and is yellowish-red in color
when ripe. When it is cut open one can see several tens of smaller fruits inside,
each as large as a crane's egg. When cut the fruit oozes yellowish-red juice

263

927a

927b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

with a sweet and delicious taste. The fruit is borne on branches, just like
other kinds of fruit, and it also grows on the roots of the tree, just as fuling
(Poria cocos) does. The climate is mild and pleasant and the people are fond
of learning by custom. There are over twenty monasteries with more than
three thousand monks, who study both the Mahayana and Hinayana teachings.
Deva temples are one hundred in number and the heretics live together. There
are numerous naked nirgranthas.

More than twenty /i to the west of the capital city is Vasibha Monastery,
consisting of spacious courtyards and halls and lofty terraces and pavilions.
There are more than seven hundred monks, all of whom study the Mahayana
teachings. Most of the great scholars and renowned monks of East India reside
here. Not far from it is a stupa built by King Asoka. In olden times the Tathagata
once preached the Dharma at this place to heavenly and human beings for
three months and the stupa often emits a brilliant light on fast days. Beside
the stupa are traces where the four past buddhas sat and walked up and down.
Not far from here is a temple in which is enshrined an image of Avalokitesvara
Bodhisattva. Its divine influence extends to all without omission and its spiritual
response is evident. People come here from far and near to fast and say prayers.

From here going east for more than nine hundred /i, I crossed a large river
and reached the country of Kamarüpa (in the domain of East India). The
country of Kamarüpa is more than ten thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city is over thirty /i in circuit. The land is irrigated by subterranean water and
the seeds of crops are sown in the proper seasons. Breadfruit and coconut are
plentiful but they are nevertheless expensive. The towns and villages are
libnked by rivers and lakes. The climate is mild and pleasant and the people
are simple and honest by social custom. They are short in stature with dark
complexions and their language differs slightly from that of Central India.
They are very hot-tempered but rigorous and diligent in study. They worship
gods and do not believe in the buddha-dharma. Therefore, since the rise of
Buddhism up to the present day, no monastery has been built to host Buddhist
monks and those who follow the pure faith do so in private. There are several
hundred deva temples and several myriads of heretics.

The reigning king, the offspring of Narayana, is a brahman by caste. He
is named Bhaskaravarman (“Sun Armor”), with the title of Kumara (“Youth”).

264

Fascicle X

The royal family has occupied the territory and ruled this country from gen-
eration to generation. Bhaskaravarman is the one-thousandth monarch. He
is fond of learning and his subjects follow his example. People of high talent,
in admiration of the king's righteousness, come from distant places to visit
him as guests. Although he does not earnestly believe in the buddha-dharma
he treats learned monks with respect. The king, having heard that a Chinese
monk had come from a great distance to Nalanda Monastery in Magadha
to study the profound Dharma of the Buddha, repeatedly sent messengers
cordially to invite the Chinese monk but the monk did not accept the invi-
tation. At that time, the sastra master Silabhadra said to him, “If you wish
to repay the kindness of the Buddha you should disseminate the right Dharma.
You should go to the king; do not fear the long journey. King Kumara pro-
fesses the heretical religion by family tradition and it is good of him to invite
a Buddhist monk. If he were to change his faith on account of your visit it
would be a great benefit with far-reaching influence. You cherished a great
mind and made a solemn vow to come to a foreign land, all by yourself and
at the risk of your own life, to seek the Dharma for the salvation of all living
beings. Do you now think only of your home country? Forget about gain
and loss and do not care about honor or disgrace when spreading the holy
teachings and enlightening those who have gone astray. Consider others?
advantage before you think of yourself, and forget about your own fame in
propagating the right Dharma." I was then obliged to go with the messengers
to meet the king.

King Kumara said, “Although I am not a person of talent] always рау
respect to those who are learned. Hearing of your fame as a person of learning
and noble character, I ventured to extend an invitation to you." I said, “I am
a person of little ability and lack wisdom. It is a great honor to me that my
humble name has reached your ears." King Kumara said, “Excellent! You
admired the Dharma and were fond of learning, and you regarded your body
as nothing more than a floating cloud, traveling through dangerous places to
a distant foreign country. This was due to the edification of your king and
the result of the general mood of advocating learning in your country. Now,
in the various states of India most people eulogize the Song of Triumph of
the Prince of Qin in Mahacina. I heard about this country long ago; is it your
homeland?” I said, “Yes. That song praises the virtues of our monarch [when

265

927c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

he was the Prince of Qin].” King Kumara said, “I did not know that you were
from that country. I always admired the morals and manners of your country
and have looked toward the East for a long time but, as the way is blocked
by mountains and rivers I have had no means by which to pay my respects.”
I said, “The virtues of our great lord spread far and his benevolence extends
widely. Many people of different regions with diverse customs and habits
come to the imperial palace to acknowledge his suzerainty.” King Kumara
said, “Since such is the case with many countries in the world, I also wish to
offer my tributary gifts. Now King Siladitya is going to conduct a great alms-
giving convocation in the country of Kajunghira to achieve bliss and wisdom.
All Buddhist monks, brahmans, and learned scholars from the five parts of
India are invited to take part in the meeting. A messenger has come to invite
me and I hope we can go together.” Thus I went with him.

In the eastern part of the country [of Kamarüpa] there is a chain of moun-
tains and hills without a big city. It borders on the territory of the Yi tribe in
southwest [China]; the inhabitants are akin to the Man and Lao minorities.
I made a detailed inquiry to the local people, who told me that a journey of
about two months would take one into the southwest region of the state of
Shu [in China], but that the mountains and rivers were difficult to pass, a
miasmal vapor permeates the air, and poisonous snakes and noxious plants
would cause drastic harm. In the southeast part of the country wild elephants
trample about in herds, so the elephant-mounted troops of this counry are
particularly strong.

Going south from here for one thousand two hundred or three hundred /;, I
reached the country of Samatata (in the domain of East India). The country
of Samatata is more than three thousand /i in circuit and because it borders
on the sea the land is low and humid. The capital city is over twenty /i in cir-
cuit. Crops grow profusely and flowers and fruit are abundant. The climate
is pleasant and the social customs are agreeable. The people are upright and
unyielding by nature. They are short in stature with dark complexions. They
are fond of learning and are diligent of their own accord. They believe in
both heterodox faiths and the right religion. There are more than thirty monas-
teries with over two thousand monks, all of whom study the teachings of the
Sthavira school. Deva temples are one hundred in number and the heretics

266

Fascicle X

live together. Naked nirgranthas are very numerous. Not far from the capital
city is a stupa constructed by King Asoka at the spot where the Tathagata
once preached the deep and wonderful Dharma to various human and heavenly
beings for seven days. Beside it are traces where the four past buddhas sat
and walked back and forth. In a monastery not far from here is a green Jade
image of the Buddha, eight feet high, with all the perfect features and which
shows timely spiritual responses.

To the northeast, in the valleys beside the great sea, is the country of
Sriksetra; farther to the southeast at the edge of the great sea is the country
of Kamalanka; farther east is the country of Dvarapati; farther east is the
country of I$anapura; farther east is the country of Mahacampa, which in
our country is known as Linyi; and farther to the southwest is the country of
Yamanadvipa. The routes to these six countries are obstructed by mountains
and rivers so I did not go into these territories, but I collected information
about the peoples’ customs and habits and the demarcations of their lands.

From the country of Samatata going west for more than nine hundred /;, I
reached the country of Tamralipti (in the domain of East India). The country
of Tamralipti is one thousand and four or five hundred /i in circuit and its
capital city 1s over ten / in circuit. Because it is situated near the sea the land
is low and moist. Crops are planted in the proper seasons and flowers and
fruit are plentiful. The climate is mild and warm. The people are hot-tempered
by custom and bold and courageous by nature. They believe in both heterodox
religions and the correct one. There are more than ten monasteries with over
one thousand monks. Deva temples are over fifty in number and heretics live
together. The country borders on a bay and is a center of commerce by land
and water. Rare and precious goods are collected here so the inhabitants are
generally wealthy and prosperous. The stupa beside the city was built by
King Asoka. Next to it are traces where the four past buddhas sat and walked
back and forth.

From here going northwest for more than seven hundred /i, I reached the
country of Karnasuvarna (in the domain of East India). The country of Karna-
suvarna is four thousand four hundred or five hundred /i in circuit and its
capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. The inhabitants are wealthy and their

267

928a

928b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

families are wealthy and prosperous. The land is low and moist and crops are
planted in the proper seasons. Different kinds of flowers are abundant and
there is a multitude of precious fruit. The climate is mild and pleasant and the
customs are honest and peaceful. The people are fond of learning and crafts-
manship and they believe in heterodox religions as well as the correct one.
There are more than ten monasteries with over two thousand monks, who
study the Hinayana teachings of the Sammitrya school. Deva temples are over
fifty in number and the heretics are quite numerous. In three other monasteries
milk curd is not taken as food, in accordance with the teaching of Devadatta.

Beside the capital city is Raktamrttika (“Red Clay") Monastery, whose
spacious courtyards and houses are noteworthy, with lofty and sublime terraces
and pavilions. All the talented and learned scholars and intelligent and well-
informed people have assembled here in this monastery to help each other
in the cultivation of morality. At first, before the buddha-dharma was professed
in this country, a heretic of South India, wearing a copper belt around his
waist, with a lamp on his head, and holding a staff in his hand, walked proudly
into the city, beating the drum of contention and demanding a debate. Someone
asked him, “Why do your head and torso look so strange?" The heretic said,
"Because my belly is so full of knowledge I fear it may burst at any moment!
Out of pity for those who are in the darkness of ignorance I wear a lamp for
their illumination." After ten days had passsed no one had accepted the chal-
lenge, and there was no suitable person even among the most talented scholars.
The king said, “How is it possible that there is no brilliant scholar to be found
in the whole country? It will be a deep shame upon the nation if the guest's
questions are not answered. We should seek a competent scholar among the
hermits living in seclusion." Someone said, “In the great forest there is a
strange man, claiming to be a sramana, who has earnestly engaged himself
in study in seclusion for a long time. If he has not been practicing the right
Dharma in accordance with morality, how could he live in such a manner?"
Hearing this, the king went in person to invite the sramana. The sramana
said, “I am a native of South India and in the course of my travels I have
come to stay in this place. Being a person of shallow learning I fear that I
am not as good as you have heard. I am honored by your invitation, however,
sp I will not insistently decline it. If I am not defeated in the debate I request
that you build a monastery and summon monks to glorify the buddha-dharma.”

268

Fascicle X

The king said, “I have heard your words with respect and I will not forget
your virtue."

At the king’s invitation the sramana went to the place of discussion, where
the heretic proclaimed his theories in thirty thousand words with deep mean-
ings expounded in a concise manner, including all the names and substances
of visible and audible objects in the world. Having heard the exposition only
once, the sramana grasped the essence of the statements without misunder-
standing and refuted them in a few hundred words. Then he proposed his
own theories and the heretic, dumbfounded, was at his wits’ end and could
not utter a word in reply. Frustrated, the heretic retired in shame. With deep
respect for the sramana, the king built this monastery and after that the
buddha-dharma began to be spread in this country.

Not far from the monastery is a stupa built by King Asoka. The Tathagata
once preached the Dharma at this spot for seven days to enlighten the audience.
Beside it is a temple and there are traces where the four past buddhas sat and
walked up and down, as well as some more stupas, all built by King Asoka
to mark spots where the Tathagata preached the Dharma.

Going southwest from here for more than seven hundred /i, I reached the
country of Uda (in the domain of East India). The country of Uda is more
than seven thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty li in circuit.
The land is fertile and the crops are abundant, with all kinds of fruit that 1s
bigger in size than that of other countries. Marvelous plants and famous flow-
ers are so rich in variety that I cannot give a full description. The climate is
temperate and the customs are tough and intrepid. The people are stalwart
in stature with dark complexions. Their language and manners differ from
those in Central India. They are tirelessly fond of learning and most of them
believe in the buddha-dharma. There are more than a hundred monasteries
with over ten thousand monks, all of whom study the Mahayana teachings.
Deva temples are fifty in number and the heretics live together. There are
over ten stupas built by King Asoka at different places to mark the spots
where the Tathagata preached the Dharma.

Among the big mountains in the southwest part of the country 1s Puspagiri
Monastery. The stone stupa of this monastery shows many spiritual signs
and on fast days it often emits a brilliant light. Pure believers come here from

269

928c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

far and near to offer garlands of flowers in competition with each other. If
the handle of a canopy is placed under the dew basin or on the main structure
of the stupa to resemble the shape of an inverted almsbowl, the canopy will
stick to the stupa, just as a needle is attracted by a magnet. The stupa in
another monastery in the mountains to the northwest of this one shows the
same strange phenomenon. It is because these two stupas were built by deities
and spirits that they possess such wonderful manifestations.

In the southeast part of this country is the city of Caritra (“Journey-start-
ing") by the seaside. Over twenty /i in circuit, it is a passageway and stopping
place for seagoing merchants and travelers. The city wall 1s strong and high
and within it there are many rare valuables. Outside the city there are five
monasteries standing in a row. The terraces and pavilions of the monasteries
are lofty and the respected images are beautifully made. The country of
Simhala is over twenty thousand /i away to the south. When I looked into
the distanc on a calm night I could see the precious pearl shining on top of
the buddha-tooth stupa in that country, just as if a bright torch were burning
in the sky.

From this city, traveling through a great forest to the southwest for more than
one thousand two hundred /i, I reached the country of Kongoda (in the domain
of East India). The country of Kongoda is more than one thousand /i in circuit
and its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. It borders on a coastal bay and
the hills and mountains are lush and luxuriant. The land is low and moist
and crops are sown in the proper seasons. The climate is temperate and the
custom is brave and intrepid. The people are big and tall with dark complex-
ions. Roughly speaking, they are polite and righteous and are not very deceit-
ful. As far as their written language is concerned, it is the same as that of
Central India, though they speak in a quite different way. They respect the
heretics and do not believe in the buddha-dharma. There are over one hundred
deva temples with more than ten thousand adherents. In the whole country
there are several tens of small towns located close to the mountains or on
the routes that lead to the sea. The city walls are strong and tall. The soldiers
are valorous and, because the country is powerful and has influence over
neighboring countries, they do not have a strong enemy. Being situated on
the coast, the country stores many rare and valuable goods; cowries and

270

Fascicle X

pearls are used as money. It produces large darkish elephants that are capable
of carrying heavy loads for long distances.

From here, going southwest for one thousand and four or five hundred /i
through a great wild jungle dense with tall trees that obscured the sun, I reached
the country of Kalinga (in the domain of South India). The country of Kalinga
is more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in
circuit. The crops are sown in the proper seasons and both flowers and fruit
thrive. Woods and marshes extend to several hundred /i at a stretch. Iit produces
darkish wild elephants that are valued by neighboring countries. The climate
is hot and the people are irascible and violent by custom; most of them are
rash and impetuous by nature, though they are trustworthy and faithful. They
speak in a quick and fluent manner with correct pronunciation, but their phrase-
ology is quite different from that of Central India. A few of them believe in
the right Dharma but the majority follow the heretics. There are more than
ten monasteries with over five hundred monks who study the teachings of
both the Mahayana and the Sthavira schools. There are over one hundred deva
temples and the heretics are numerous; most of them are nirgranthas.

In olden times Kalinga was a rich and prosperous country with such a
dense population that pedestrians jostled in the paths and carts collided on
the highways; if all the people were to raise their arms the sleeves of their
clothing would form a curtain. A rsi possessing the five supernatural powers
lived in the mountains in this country, practicing mental cultivation. Someone
insulted him and he became enraged; his feeling of hatred caused him to lose
his supernatural powers. He then cursed the people, old and young, wise and
ignorant, and the country became depopulated for many years. Recently it
has been gradually reinhabited but it is still sparsely populated.

Not far to the south of the capital city is a stupa more than one hundred
feet high built by King Asoka. Beside it are traces where the four past buddhas
sat and walked up and down. On the great ridge of a mountain in the north
frontier of the country is a stone stupa more than a hundred feet high. This
is the place where a pratyekabuddha entered nirvana at the beginning of the
present kalpa, when the human life span was countless years.

From here, going northwest through mountains and forests for over a thousand
eight hundred /i, I reached the country of Kosala (in the domain of Central

271

929a

929b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

India). The country of Kosala is more than six thousand /i in circuit and is
surrounded by mountains and ridges; woods and marshes link with each
other. The capital city is over forty /i in circuit. The land is fertile and the
soil productive. The towns and villages are situated within sight of each other
and the inhabitants are wealthy. They are physically substantial, stout, and
dark in complexion. The social custom is indomitable and fierce and the
people are bold and violent by nature. They believe in both erroneous religions
and the correct one; their learning and craftsmanship are outstanding. The
king, a ksatriya by caste, pays great respect to the buddha-dharma and his
benevolence is deep and far-reaching. There are over one hundred monasteries
with nearly ten thousand monks, all of whom study the Mahayana teachings.
Deva temples amount to over seventy and the heretics live together.

Not far to the south of the city is an old monastery; beside it is a stupa
built by King Asoka. In olden times the Tathagata, employing his great divine
powers, subjugated the heretics at this place and Nagarjuna Bodhisattva later
stayed in this monastery. The reigning king of this country, named Satavaha
(“Leading Right"), respected Nagarjuna and posted a guard at the door of
his dwelling. At that time Deva Bodhisattva came from the country of Simhala
in hopes of holding a discussion. He said to the guard, “Please announce my
arrival." The guard did so accordingly. Nagarjuna, knowing well the name
of Deva, filled a bowl with water and said to a disciple, “Take this water and
show it to Deva." On seeing the bowl of water, Deva silently dropped a needle
into it. Bewildered, the disciple took the bowl back to Nagarjuna, who asked
the disciple, “What did he say?" The disciple said, “He kept silent and simply
dropped a needle into the water." Nagarjuna said, “He is indeed a person of
wisdom! He understands the deep meanings of things as cleverly as a divine
being and his perception of subtle theories is second only to that of a saint.
Such a virtuous person should be admitted immediately." The disciple said,
“What does this mean? Is this the wonderful eloquence of reticence?” Nagar-
juna said, “Water is something that may be either round or square, depending
on the vessel that contains it, and it can carry away anything, whether clean
or defiled. It flows everywhere without interruption and it is limpid but unfath-
omable. I showed him a bowlful of water to signify that my all-around wis-
dom and he dropped a needle into the water to hint that he could get to the
bottom of my knowledge. He is not an ordinary person. Usher him in quickly!"

272

Fascicle X

Now Nagarjuna was a man of austere deportment with a stern appearance,
and whoever talked with him always lowered his head. Deva had heard about
his ways and manners and had wished to study under his instruction for a
long time. When he was about to receive Nagarjuna's instruction he flaunted
his sublime wit at first, but when he saw the teacher he was awed by his aus-
terity. After entering the hall he took a seat in a corner and talked on abstruse
topics in refined and elegant words for an entire day. Nagarjuna said, “You
are a prominent student and your eloquence exceeds that of your predecessors.
Being a feeble old man, I am happy to have met you, a brilliant scholar, to
whom I may impart my knowledge, just as one pours water from one pitcher
into another, and transmit the lamp [of the Dharma] without cease. The prop-
agation of the Dharma depends on such people as you. Please come closer
so that we may discuss the deep and abstruse teachings." Hearing these words,
Deva felt self-conceit and before starting the exposition of the profound the-
ories, he first put forward an argument in a plausible and lengthy manner.
When he raised his head to look at his opponent he suddenly saw [Nagarjuna's]
awe-inspiring features, which rendered him dumbfounded and unable to
speak. He stood up to apologize and begged to receive [the master's] instruc-
tions. Nagarjuna said, “Sit down! I shall teach you the supreme and wonderful
truth, the real teachings of the King of the Dharma."

Deva then prostrated himself before Nagarjuna and promised to devote
his life and his whole mind to him, saying, “From now on I will listen to
your instructions."

Nagarjuna Bodhisattva was skilled in pharmacology. By taking medicated
nourishment he lived to be several hundred years of age with unfading mental
and physical faculties. With the aid of such miraculous potions, King Satavaha
also reached the age of several centuries. His youngest son said to his mother,
*When will I be able to succeed to the throne?" The prince's mother said,
“In view of the present situation there is no fixed date. Your father, the king,
is several hundred years old and many of his offspring have predeceased
him. This is all due to the power of bliss of Nagarjuna as well as his skill in
the medical arts. When the bodhisattva 1s no more the king will certainly fall
into extinction. Nagarjuna Bodhisattva is a person of great wisdom and pro-
found compassion. He renders service to all living beings and regards his

273

929c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

own body as excrement. You may approach him and beg him to cutt off his
head. If you succeed in the attempt you will be able to fulfill your wishes."

Under his mother's instruction, the prince came to the monastery. The
guard had fled in fear so the prince had free admittance to the premises.
Nagarjuna Bodhisattva was walking up and down, reciting a eulogistic
stanza, when he suddenly saw the prince. He stopped walking and asked
him, *Why have you come to the monastery this evening in such a hurry,
as if some urgent and fearful thing has happened?" The prince said in reply,
“I had a discussion with my compassionate mother and I said that the scrip-
tures and proverbs mention that almsgivers give alms to others for sustaining
their precious lives but no one would give up his own body to someone who
asked for it. My compassionate mother said, ‘It is not so. The Sugatas (^Well-
departed Ones") of the ten directions and the tathagatas of the three periods
diligently seek the Buddha's way from their [first] mental initiation up to
their attainment of buddhahood. They acquire forbearance by observing the
disciplinary rules; they lie down to feed animals [with their bodies] or they
cut their own flesh to ransom doves. King Candraprabha gave his head as
alms to a brahman and King Maitribala fed hungry yaksas with his own
blood. Such instances are too numerous to cite and examples can be found
among the enlightened ones of all generations.’ Now, Nagarjuna Bodhisattva,
you are a man cherishing high ambitions. I am in need of a human head but
for many years I could not find anyone who would voluntarily give his head
to me. If I kill someone by force I would be deeply sinful, and to slaughter
an innocent person is notoriously immoral. But you, a bodhisattva, have
practiced the sacred Way in expectation of attaining buddhahood in the
future; your kindness has benefitted all sentient beings without limit. You
slight your body as [nothing more than] a bit of shifting cloud and treat it
with contempt as if it were a rotten log. As it is not contrary to your original
vow I beseech you to grant me my request."

Nagarjuna said, “What you have said is true. I seek the fruition of buddha-
hood and in imitation of the Buddha I can forsake anything. This body of
mine is [as impermanent] as an echo or a bubble. It rotates in the four forms
of birth and transmigrates in the six ways of reincarnation. I have made a
great vow that I should never go against others’ wishes. But, my dear prince,
there 1s one thing we should not do. What do you think about this? When I

274

Fascicle X

am dead your father will also perish. Please consider the matter and see who
can save him." Then Nagarjuna walked around to see what could be used to
take his own life. He took up a blade of dry cogon grass to cut his throat and
severed his head, just as if it had been cut by a sharp sword. Seeing this sight,
the prince was terrified and fled. The palace gatekeeper reported to the king
and informed him of everything. The king was greatly aggrieved to hear the
evil tidings that Nagarjuna died.

More than three hundred /i to the southwest of the country is Bhramara-
giri (“Black Bee") Mountain, which is lofty and has precipitous peaks and
cliffs and because it has no slopes to form a valley it seems to be composed
entirely of rock. King Satavaha chiseled the rocky mountain to build a
monastery for Nagarjuna. At a point more than ten /i away from the mountain
a passageway was cut, leading up to the foot of the mountain and then con-
tinuing upward through excavation of the rocks. There are porches and veran-
das, lofty terraces, and storied pavilions in the monastery. The pavilions are
arranged in five tiers; on each tier there are four courtyards with shrines and
each shrine has a golden life-size image of the Buddha, carved with perfect
workmanship. The other places are decorated with gold and jewels. Water is
channeled from the high peaks of the mountain to flow down around the pavil-
ions to link them with the corridors. Windows have been cut in the rocky
walls to illuminate the chambers.

In the course of constructing this monastery King Satavaha ran short of
laborers and the treasury was exhausted when the work was not yet half done.
[The king] was greatly concerned. Nagarjuna said to him, “Why does Your
Majesty seem to be heavy-hearted?" The king said, “I cherished a great mind
and ventured to establish a deed of blessedness, hoping it would be everlasting
up to the advent of Maitreya Buddha. But before the meritorious exploit has
been completed all my resources have been expended. This is the cause of
my worry; I am unable to sleep and sit up waiting for daybreak.” Nagarjuna
said, “Do not worry! A sublime deed of supreme bliss will produce endless
advantages. With a great mind no worrisome problem is insoluble. Be merry
and happy when you return to your palace today. On the morning of the day
after tomorrow you may go out sightseeing in the countryside, and then come
here to talk about the construction work." Having received this guidance,
the king worshiped Nagarjuna by circumambulating him.

275

930a

930b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Nagarjuna dropped mystical potions onto the big rocks and all of them
turned into gold. While on the excursion the king was delighted to see the
gold. He drove his carriage to the place of Nagarjuna, to whom he said,
“Today, while on a pleasure trip, I was beguiled by deities and spirits into
seeing heaps of gold in the mountains and woods." Nagarjuna said, “The
gold has come into existence not through beguilement by spirits but due to
your sincere devotion. You should make use of it to accomplish your superior
work." The king then used the gold for the construction of the monastery
and when the work was completed there was still surplus gold, from which
four large golden images were made [and placed] on each of the five tiers.
The remaining gold was used to replenish the treasury so that a thousand
monks could be invited to live and carry out religious activities in the
monastery. Nagarjuna Bodhisattva collected and classified the teachings of
the Buddha and the treatises composed by various bodhisattvas and stored
them in the monastery. In the top tier only the buddha images and various
scriptures and treatises were placed. The lowest tier was used as dormitories
for the monastic servants and storerooms for keeping property and miscel-
laneous things, while the three middle tiers served as the monks’ lodgings.
I heard some old people say that after King Satavaha had completed the con-
struction it was estimated that the amount of salt consumed by the workers
cost nine kofis of gold coins.

Afterward the monks had contention among themselves and they went to
the king for a settlement. The monastic servants said to one another, “While
the monks are quarreling with each other in contradictory words, some evil
people are taking this opportunity to subvert the monastery." So they locked
the doors from the inside to repulse the monks. Since then no monks have
ever lived in this monastery. When one looks at the rocky mountain from
afar the path leading to the gate cannot be seen. Whenever physicians were
summoned to cure sick inmates they were taken in and out blindfolded so
that they would not know the way.

Going southwest from here for more than nine hundred /i through a large
forest, I reached the country of Andhra (in the domain of South India). The
country of Andhra is more than three thousand / in circuit and its capital city,
Vengipura, is over twenty /i in circuit. The land is good and fertile, yielding

276

Fascicle X

abundant crops. The climate is warm and hot and the people are violent by
custom. Their spoken language is different from that of Central India but
they follow the same rules of writing. There are more than twenty monasteries
with over three thousand monks. Deva temples are more than thirty in number
with numerous heretics.

Not far from Vengipura is a great monastery consisting of storied pavilions
and multitiered terraces beautifully decorated with engravings; the images of
the Buddha are most exquisitely made. In front of the monastery 15 a stone stupa
several hundred feet high built by the arhat Асага (Established Rule of Con-
duct"). Not far to the southwest of the monastery of the arhat Acara is a stupa
built by King Asoka. The Tathagata once preached the Dharma and showed
great supernatural powers at this place and converted innumerable people.

Going southwest for more than twenty /i from the monastery of the arhat
Acara I reached a solitary hill. On the peak of the hill is a stone stupa built
at the place where Dignaga (“Given”) Bodhisattva composed the Hetuvidya-
sastra.

Dignaga Bodhisattva became a monk clad and donned the dyed robe after
the Buddha's demise. He was endowed with great intelligence and resolve,
and his power of wisdom was firm and strong. Having pity for the helpless
world, he thought of propagating the holy teachings. Considering the theories
of hetuvidyà (logic) were so profound in wording and extensive in reasoning
that no student could complete the study of it without great effort, he retired
to a secluded place in the mountains. He fixed his mind in meditation, pon-
dered the advantages and disadvantages of his writings, and thought about
the verbosity and concision of the textual meanings. At that time, as a sound
echoed in the valley and the mist and clouds changed color, the mountain
god raised the bodhisattva to a height of several hundred feet and made an
announcement, saying, “Formerly the Buddha, the World-honored One, who
guided the people appropriately, spoke on the Hetuvidya-sastra with a mind
of compassion, comprehending all wonderful systems of reasoning and
delving into the meanings of subtle sayings. After the demise of the Tathagata
the great teachings became extinct. Now Dignaga Bodhisattva, long endowed
with bliss and intelligence, and deeply understanding the gist of the sacred
teachings, will today propagate the Hetuvidya-sastra again!” [Dignaga]

2T]

930c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Bodhisattva emitted a brilliant light that shined on those who were in darkness.
At that moment, the king, seeing the light, suspected with a mind of deep
respect [that the bodhisattva] had entered the diamond samadhi and asked
him to realize the fruition of birthlessness. Dignaga said, “I sit in meditation
to think about how to shed light on a profound text. I expect to attain is the
perfect enlightenment [of buddhahood]; I am not aiming at [merely] gaining
the fruition of birthlessness [of arhatship]." The king said, “The fruition of
birthlessness is appreciated and admired by all holy persons because it cuts
off the desires of the three realms of the world and makes one thoroughly
master the three systems of learning; this is a great event. Please realize it
without delay!"

At that time Dignaga was pleased with the king's request. When he was
about to realize the sacred fruition of having nothing more to learn, Mafijusri
Bodhisattva knew his intention and had pity on him. Wishing to admonish
him Mañjuśrī said with a snap of his fingers, “What a pity! Why should you
give up the broad mind to adopt a narrow and inferior ambition and follow
the line of selfishness instead of an altruistic intention? If you wish to perform
benevolent deeds for others you should widely propagate the Yogacara-
bhümi-sástra composed by Maitreya Bodhisattva to guide younger scholars;
this would be of great advantage." Dignaga Bodhisattva respectfully accepted
the instruction and worshiped [Mafijusri] by circumambulating him. Then
he engaged himself in making a profound study to popularize the knowledge
of hetuvidya. Because he feared that the meaning was too subtle and the
wording too terse for students he wrote the Hetuvidya-sastra to explain the
principal gist and the subtle meanings in a comprehensive way for the guidance
of younger students. After that he propagated the Yogacarabhümi-sastra
extensively. His disciples were well known by their contemporaries.

Going south through forests and wilderness for more than one thousand /;, I
reached the country of Dhanakataka (also known as Great Andhra, in the
domain of South India). The country of Dhanakataka is more than six thousand
li in circuit and its capital city is over forty /i in circuit. The soil is fertile and
produces rich crops. There is much wasteland and few inhabited towns. The
climate is humid and hot and the people are dark in complexion, violent by
nature, and fond of learning arts. There are numerous monasteries crowded

278

Fascicle X

as closely together as the scales of a fish, but most are deserted; only about
ten are still in use and they have more than a thousand monks, who mostly
study the teachings of the Mahasamghika school. There are over a hundred
deva temples with innumerable heretics.

On the hillside to the east of the capital city is Pürvasaila (“East Mountain")
Monastery and on the hillside to the west of the city is Avara$aila (“West
Mountain") Monastery. These were built for the Buddha by a former king
of this country, who reclaimed the river to make a path and cut the rocks to
build tall pavilions with corridors and passageways in the steeps leading up
to the peaks. Spirits and deities guarded these monasteries, which were fre-
quented by saints and sages. During the millennium after the Buddha's nirvana
one thousand ordinary monks came here to spend the rainy season every
year, and on the day of dissolving the summer retreat they all attained arhatship
and flew away through supernatural power. At the end of the millennium
ordinary and holy monks lived here together, but no monks have resided at
these monasteries for the last one hundred years. The mountain gods changed
themselves into the forms of jackals and wolves, or apes and monkeys, to
scare off wayfarers, and that is why the monasteries became deserted of res-
ident monks.

Not far to the south of the city is a great mountain cliff, which was the
place where the sastra master Bhavaviveka (“Clear Discrimination") stayed
at Asura's Palace to wait for the advent of Maitreya Bodhisattva as a buddha.
The $азїга master was a person of magnanimous disposition with deep and
sublime virtues. Although he was outwardly clad in the garb of the Samkhya
sect he inwardly glorified the theories of Nagarjuna. When he heard that
Dharmapala Bodhisattva of the country of Magadha was spreading the teach-
ings of the Dharma with a following of several thousand disciples, he cherished
the thought of having a discussion with him and, holding his pewter staff,
went to see him. On arriving in the city of Pataliputra he came to know that
Dharmapala Bodhisattva was at the bodhi tree. The sastra master said to his
disciple, “Go to the bodhi tree, where Dharmapala Bodhisattva is staying,
and convey my message to him: “The bodhisattva is preaching the bequeathed
teachings of the Buddha to guide those who have gone astray. I have admired
your virtue with an open mind for a long time. Owing to the nonfulfillment

279

931a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of my former resolve, however, I failed to come to pay respect to you. I
vowed not to see the bodhi tree until I realized buddhahood and became a
teacher of human and heavenly beings." Dharmapala Bodhisattva said to
the messenger, “The human world is illusory and life is ephemeral. As I prac-
tice religion with diligence and sincerity all day long I do not have time to
hold a discussion." The messenger went back and forth to convey the message
but no interview was held.

The sastra master returned to his own country and pondered quietly, “Until
Maitreya Bodhisattva becomes a buddha who can solve my doubts?" Then
he recited the Mahakarunikacitta-dharani before an image of Avalokitesvara
Bodhisattva. For three years he refrained from taking food and drank only
water. Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva then appeared in a beautiful body and said
to the sastra master, “What is your aspiration?" [Bhavaviveka replied,] “I
wish to keep this body of mine so as to wait and see Maitreya Bodhisattva."
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva said, “As human life is fragile and the world is
illusory, you should cultivate superior good deeds in order to be reborn in
Tusita Heaven, where you can speedily see and pay homage [to Maitreya].”
The šastra master said, “I shall not give up my idea, nor shall I change my
mind." The bodhisattva said, “If that is the case, you should go to the country
of Dhanakataka, where you can get your wish fulfilled by reciting the
Vajrapani-dharani at the place of the deity Vajrapani on the mountain cliff
to the south of the capital city.” The sastra master then went there accordingly
and recited the incantation. After three years the deity said to him, “What is
your wish, for which you have worked so hard and vigorously?” The sastra
master said, “I wish to preserve this body of mine to wait and see Maitreya.
It was Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva who directed me to come here. Are you
the deity who will help me fulfill my desire?”

The deity then told him the secret and said to him, “Inside the cliff is
Asura’s Palace and if you act in accordance with my directive the cliff will
open. Once it is open you should immediately go in and you may wait there
to see [Maitreya].” The sastra master said, “If I am confined inside, how can
I know when a buddha has come into the world?” Vajrapani said, “I will
inform you when Maitreya is born in the world.” The sastra master did as
he was instructed and devoted himself to reciting the incantation for three
more years. At first he did not have any other thought but he then transmitted

280

Fascicle X

magical power to some mustard seeds and threw them against the cliff, which
consequently opened wide. Hundreds and thousands of people witnessed the
miracle and forgot to return home. Standing at the entrance of the cave, the
Sastra master said to the crowd, “I have prayed for a long time, wishing to
wait and see Maitreya, and now my great desire is to be fulfilled through the
spiritual assistance of holy deities. You may also come into the cave together
with me to see the advent of a buddha." Saying that the cavern [was full] of
venomous snakes and fearing that they might lose their lives, the people were
frightened and no one dared to step through the door. Only after repeated
exhortation did six men follow Bhavaviveka into the cave. The sastra master
turned back to wave farewell to the crowd and, in a composed manner, he
entered the cave and the cliff closed behind him. The crowd felt sorry and
repented of the faulty remarks they had made.

From here going southwest for more than one thousand /; I reached the country
of Cola (in the domain of South India). The country of Cola is two thousand
and four or five hundred /i in circuit and its capital city is over ten /i in circuit.
The empty land and fields lie in waste amid desolate marshes. There are few
inhabitants and bands of robbers openly run amok. The climate is mild and
warm. The people are fraudulent by custom and fierce by nature; they believe
in heretical religions. The monasteries are dilapidated and have very few monks.
There are several tens of deva temples with many naked heretics.

Not far to the southeast of the city is a stupa built by King Asoka. The
Tathagata once manifested great supernatural powers, preached the profound
Dharma, subjugated the heretics, and converted many human and heavenly
beings at this place.

Not far to the west of the city is an old monastery where Deva Bodhisattva
held a discussion with an arhat. Deva had heard that the arhat Uttara
("Supreme"), who possessed the six supernatural powers and had attained
the eight emancipations, lived in this monastery. He came from afar to visit
this arhat. When he arrived at the monastery he asked for lodging. The arhat
was content with few desires [and possessions] and had only one bed. Because
he had no spare bed for Deva he gathered a heap of withered leaves and
invited Deva to sit on it. The arhat then entered samadhi. When he emerged
from the state of samadhi at night Deva put his doubts to him, asking for a

281

931b

931c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

solution, and the arhat gave explanations to solve his queries point by point.
When Deva raised the seventh question in his repeated interrogations, however,
the arhat was reticent and gave no reply. He went stealthily to Tusita Heaven
through supernatural power to seek Maitreya’s advice. Maitreya gave him the
relevant explanations and told him, “This was not known to you, but Deva
has cultivated himself in right practice for many kalpas in the past and he will
achieve buddhahood during the present bhadrakalpa. You should revere him
with deep respect.” In the time it takes to snap one’s fingers the arhat returned
to his seat and continued to talk with Deva about the wonderful theories and
analyze the subtle sayings. Deva said to him, “What you have said is the expo-
sition of the holy wisdom of Maitreya Bodhisattva. Is that why you can make
a full elucidation?” The arhat said, “What you have said is true.” He then

arose from his seat to worship Deva with respect and praise.

Going south through jungles and wilderness for one thousand and five or six
hundred /i, I reached the country of Dravida (in the domain of South India).
The country of Dravida is more than six thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city, Kaficipura, is over thirty /i in circuit. The soil is fertile and crops are
plentiful. It abounds in flowers and fruit and yields precious substances. The
climate is hot. The people are courageous and fierce by custom and are entirely
trustworthy. They are noble-minded and have broad learning. ITheir written
and spoken language is slightly different from that of Central India. There
are more than a hundred monasteries with over ten thousand monks, all of
whom study and practice the teachings of the Sthavira school. There are over
eighty deva temples and most of the worshipers are naked heretics. When
the Tathagata was living in the world he visited this country on several occa-
sions to preach the Dharma for converting the people and King Asoka built
stupas at all the holy sites.

The city of Kaficipura was the birthplace of Dharmapala (“Dharma-pro-
tector”) Bodhisattva, who was the eldest son of a minister of this country.
Since his childhood he had a magnanimous disposition and he was broad-
minded as an adult. When he was twenty years old one of the king's daughters
was betrothed to him, but on the evening a banquet was held in celebration
of the marriage he felt distressed and prayed before an image of the Buddha.
Moved by his sincerity, a deity carried him off to a mountain monastery

282

Fascicle X

several hundred /i away from his home. As he sat in the buddha hall a monk
opened the door and discovered the young man, suspecting that he was a
thief. Upon interrogation [Dharmapala] Bodhisattva told the monk everything
and asked to become a monk. The community of monks, amazed by his
career, gave him permission to satisfy his wish. Meanwhile, the king gave
orders to search for him far and near, and subsequently came to know that
the bodhisattva had been carried away from the world by a deity. Having
been informed of this fact the king was most respectful and amazed. After
he donned the dyed robe as a monk Dharmapala studied hard and well; his
reputation and character have been narrated in a previous passage.

Not far to the south of the capital city is a great monastery in which the
wise and intelligent people of the country assembled. There is a stupa more
than a hundred feet high built by King Asoka. Formerly the Tathagata preached
the Dharma, subjugated heretics, and widely converted human and heavenly
beings at this place. Beside it are sites where the four past buddhas sat and
walked up and down.

From here going south for more than three thousand Ji, I reached the country
of Malaküta (also called the country of Kumari, in the domain of South India).
The country of Malaküta is more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city is over forty /i in circuit. The land has saline soil and agricultural yields
are poor. Most of the precious products from the islands in the sea are collected
in this country. The climate is very hot and the people are mostly dark in
complexion. They are upright and indomitable in disposition and follow both
the erroneous faiths and the right one. They do not uphold the learning of
the arts but they are good at [business]. There are many ruined foundations
of old monasteries but very few existing ones, and the monks are also few
in number. There are several hundred deva temples with many heretics, most
of whom are naked ascetics.

Not far to the east of the city is an old monastery whose buildings are
dilapidated but the foundations are still in existence. It was constructed by
Mahendra, a younger brother of King Ašoka. At the east side is a stupa whose
the high foundation has collapsed but the dome, which is in the shape of an
inverted almsbowl, still exists. It was built by King Asoka. The Tathagata
once preached the Dharma, showed great supernatural powers, and converted

283

932a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

innumerable people at this place, so the stupa was built to mark the holy site.
Even after such a long time has passed it 1s all the more divine and can answer
whatever prayer 1s said to it.

Near the sea in the south of the country is Malaya Mountain, with its lofty
cliffs and ridges and deep valleys and gullies. On the mountain there are
white sandal trees and candaneva trees, which similar to white sandal trees;
indeed, the two are indistinguishable. At the height of summer, if one goes
to a high place to look out and sees a tree entwined by a large snake, one
knows that it is a candaneva tree. This species of tree is cool by nature so
snakes like to entwine themselves upon it. Having seen the tree one should
shoot an arrow to mark the place and then come to cut it down after the winter
solstice. The trunk of the karpüra (camphor) tree is similar to that of the pine
tree but the leaves, flowers, and fruit differ from those of the pine. The freshly
cut wood has no fragrance but when it is dried and split along the grain an
aromatic substance, in a form like mica and the color of ice or snow, is found.
This is what is known as camphor.

To the east of Malaya Mountain is Potalaka Mountain, which has perilous
paths and precipitous cliffs and valleys. On top of the mountain is a lake of
clear water, flowing into a large river that courses twenty times around the
mountain before entering the South Sea. Beside the lake is a stone heavenly
palace frequented by Avalokite$vara Bodhisattva. Those who wish to see the
bodhisattva risk their lives to cross the river and climb the mountain, regardless
of hardship and danger, but only a few of them reach their destination. When
the inhabitants living at the foot of the mountain pray to see the bodhisattva
he appears either in the form of Mahesvara or as an ash-smearing heretic to
console them and answer their prayers. On the seaside northeast of the moun-
tain is a city located on the way to the country of Simhala in the South Sea.

I heard the local people say that from here going southeast over the sea for
more than three thousand /i one can reach the country of Simhala (known in
China as the Country of Lions," not in the domain of India).

End of Fascicle X of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

284

Fascicle XI

Twenty-three Countries,
from Simhala to Varnu

1. The Country of Simhala 13. The Country of Zhizhituo
(Though it is not a country in the domain 14. The Country of Mahesvarapura
of India, I passed by it and put it here 15. The Country of Sindhu
as an appendix.) 16. The Country of Mülasthanapura
2. The Country of Konkanapura 17. The Country of Parvata
3. The Country of Maharastra 18. The Country of Audumbatira
4. The Country of Bharukacchapa 19. The Country of Langala
5. The Country of Malava 20. The Country of Parsa
6. The Country of Atali (Though it is not a country in the domain
7. The Country of Kita of India, I passed by it and put it here as
8. The Country of Valabhi an appendix. Formerly known as Persia.)
9. The Country of Anandapura 21. The Country of Patasila
10. The Country of Surattha 22. The Country of Avanda
11. The Country of Gürjara 23. The Country of Varnu
12. The Country of Ојјауапт Note on Simhala by Zeng He

The country of Simhala is more than seven thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city is over forty /i in circuit. The soil is fertile and the climate is
warm and hot. The crops are sown and planted in the proper seasons and
flowers and fruit are plentiful. The country is densely populated with wealthy
families. The people are short in stature and black in complexion with a rustic
and fiery disposition, but they are fond of learning, advocate virtue, and pro-
mote the performance of good deeds in order to gain bliss.

This country is a precious island producing many valuable gems; it was
originally occupied by spirits and deities. The daughter of a king of South
India was once betrothed to a neighboring country. When the girl was sent
to get married on an auspicious day she encountered a lion on the way. when
the guards deserted her and fled the girl remained in her palanquin, awaiting

285

932b

932c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

certain death, but the lion king carried her away to the remote mountains and
provided her with venison and fruit daily. After some years she gave birth
to a son and a daughter with human bodies but of animal extraction. When
the boy grew up he was so strong that he could wrestle with a fierce animal.
At the age of twenty his human intelligence was developed and he said to
his mother, *What am I, with an animal as my father and a human being as
my mother? Since you are not of the same genus, how could you have lived
with him?" His mother then told him about the past and he said, "Human
beings and animals go on different ways. We should escape at once." His
mother said, “I have tried to escape but I have failed in the attempt." Her son
then followed the tracks of his lion-father over mountains and ridges to find
a way to flee from the calamity. When his father was away he carried his
mother and sister down to the region of human habitation. His mother said,
“You two should be prudent and not say anything about our origins. If the
people get wind of it they will despise us." Then she and her children pro-
ceeded to her father's country, but it was no longer under the rule of her
family and her relatives had all gone. So she took lodging in the house of a
townsman, who asked her, “Where do you come from?” She said, “I am a
native of this country and have been wandering about in alien lands without
a home. I have come back with my children to our homeland." The people
felt sorry for them and provided them with sustenance.

When the lion king came back and found his dwelling empty he was
enraged by the loss of his family. He went out of the valley to roam about
the villages and towns, roaring with fury, wreaking havoc for the people and
causing harm to living creatures. When the townsfolk came out he would
catch and kill them. They beat drums, blew conches, armed themselves with
crossbows and spears, and traveled in groups to avoid being injured. Fearing
that the situation might jeopardize his sovereignty, the king sent hunters to
capture the lion, and the king himself, commanding myriads of soldiers of
the four divisions of his troops, lay in ambush in the dense forests and covered
the valleys. But the lion roared furiously and both men and horses fled in
terror. Having failed to seize the lion the king posted a proclamation, saying
that anyone who could capture the lion and rid the country of him would be
handsomely rewarded in appreciation of his merit.

286

Fascicle XI

Hearing the king's order, the lion's son said to his mother, “We are suffering
very much from hunger and cold. I should respond to the king's call and per-
haps I can earn something with which to sustain you." His mother said, *No!
You must not say that. Although he is an animal he is still your father. How
can we do him harm simply because we are living a hard life?" The son said,
*Humans and animals belong to different species so what principle of morality
exists between the two? Since we have departed from him, what may we
anticipate in our minds?" He put a dagger into his sleeve and went to answer
the call.

At that time hundreds and thousands of men and horses were assembled
but no one dared to approach the lion, who was crouching in the forest. When
his son came into his presence, howver, he became tame and docile and his
parental affection appeased his anger. His son then stabbed him in the abdomen
with the dagger. Even then the lion remained affectionate to his son and had
no feeling of resentment. His abdomen burst open and he died in pain.

The king said, *What sort of person is this who has done such a strange
thing?" Enticed by promises of a reward and threatened by severe punishment,
the lion's son told the whole story in full detail. The king said, “How treach-
erous you are! If you can kill even your own father, what about unrelated
people? A person of animal blood is hard to tame and his brutal sentiment
is easily aroused. You have done a meritorious deed by ridding the people of
the animal but, because you killed your father, your heart is treacherous indeed.
I shall grant you a rich reward as payment for your merit but I will banish
you to a far-off place as punishment for your cruelty. In this way the code of
the country is maintained and I do not break my promise." Then two big ships
were prepared and furnished with a large amount of food and rations. The
mother was kept in this country and well looked after in reward of her merit,
while her son and daughter each embarked on a different ship, drifting away
with the waves. The son's ship sailed over the sea to this precious island,
where he saw plenty of pearls and gems, and so he settled down here. When
some merchants later came to the island to collect gems, he killed the chief
ofthe merchants and kept his daughter. The populace multiplied gradually as
a large number of offspring were produced. They then established the system
of king and subjects in superior and inferior positions. They constructed a

287

933a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

capital city, built up villages and towns, and occupied the territory of the
country. Because their forefather was the seizer of a lion, they named the
country by that title in commemoration of the merit of their origins. The
daughter's ship floated to the west of Parsa, where she was bewitched by a
spirit and gave birth to several daughters, who then formed what is now
called the Women's Country in the West. The inhabitants of the country of
Simhala are short in stature and black in complexion with square cheeks and
big foreheads. They are rustic and fiery by temperament and cruel and malig-
nant in disposition, features inherited from the fierce animal. Therefore the
people are mostly brave and stout. This is one of the traditions.

According to the Buddhist tradition, it is said that in the great iron city of
this precious island there lived five hundred raksasis (female demons). On
the tower over the city gate two pennants were hoisted high to signify good
or ill luck. When something good was going to happen the auspicious pennant
fluttered in the air, and when something evil was going to occur the inauspicious
one quivered. The raksasis always waited for merchants coming to the precious
island; they would change themselves into beautiful maidens to welcome and
console the travelers with fragrant flowers and music and lure them into the
iron city. After the merriment and feasting were over the merchants would be
confined in an iron prison to be eventually eaten up.

At that time in Jambudvipa there was a great merchant lord named Simha,
whose son was named Simhala. As his father was getting old, Simhala
assumed responsibility for family affairs. He led five hundred merchants to
sail the seas to collect valuables and they were driven to this precious island
by the wind and waves. When the raksasis saw the auspicious pennant flut-
tering in the air they held fragrant flowers and played music to receive the
guests and entice them into the iron city. The young merchant lord joined
with the queen of the raksasis in happiness and merry enjoyment, and each
of the other merchants found a spouse for himself. After a year each of them
had a son born to him. The rdksasis were unfaithful to their paramours and
intended to cast them into the iron prison and wait for other merchants to
come. Then Simhala had an evil dream and knew that it was an ill omen. He
secretly sought a way of returning home. When he approached the iron prison
he heard the sound of pitiful wailing. So he climbed up a tree and asked,
“Who imprisoned you, that you are crying so sorrowfully?" The prisoners

288

Fascicle XI

said, “Do you not know that all the women in the city are raksasis? Formerly
they lured us into the city to make merry with us, but just before your arrival
they put us into this prison and began eating us as their food. Now most of
us have been consumed by them. Before long you will suffer the same
calamity." Simhala asked, “By what means can I escape from such a disaster?"
The prisoners said, “We have heard that on the seaside there is a heavenly
horse. If you say prayers with sincerity it will surely rescue you."

Having heard this warning Simhala secretly told it to his merchant com-
panions, and so they faced the seaside and prayed earnestly for help. At that
time the heavenly horse came and told them, “АП of you should grasp my
mane firmly and do not look back. I will carry you across the sea to save you
from disaster and send you home to Jambudvipa.” The merchants did as they
were told and gripped the mane of the horse intently. The heavenly horse rose
into the air and galloped along a path of clouds to the seaside. When the
raksasis found that their husbands were gone they related the news to one
another, wondering where they had gone. They brought their infant sons with
them and flew to and fro in the air. When they learned that the merchants were
about to go across the sea they called to each other to fly the long distance
together. In a short time they met the company of merchants with mixed feel-
ings of grief and joy, shedding tears of emotion. Each of them covered her
face and sobbed, saying to her husband, “I am lucky to have been acquainted
with you, my good man, and we lived together happily in conjugal affection
for a long time. But now you are trying to go away, leaving your wife and
child to live in solitude and long for you in despair. How can you be so hard-
hearted? I hope you will stay and return with us to the city." The merchants
would not listen to their entreaties, however. Since the raksasis had failed in
their tactful solicitation they resorted to coquetry to seduce them with bewitch-
ment, and the merchants could not withstand their amorous fascination. Just
atthe moment they hesitated about whether to go or stay, they dropped from
the air. The raksasis were overjoyed and returned home with the merchants.

Simhala was a person of deep wisdom with no attachment in his mind,
so he succeeded in crossing the great sea and was spared from the disaster.
The queen of the raksasis returned to the iron city empty-handed. The other
raksasis said to her, “Since you are devoid of wisdom and tact you should
not stay here." The queen, with her son, then flew to where Simhala was and

289

933b

933c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

tried all means of feminine charm to persuade him to return with her. Bran-
dishing a sword, Simhala recited an incantation and shouted at her, “You are
a raksasi but I am a man. We go on different ways and аге not compatible. If
you importune me to go with you I will kill you at once." Knowing that she
could not prevail upon him, the raksasi flew away to Simhala's home. There
she lied to his father, Simha, saying, “I am a princess of a certain country, and
I married Simhala and had a son. While we were on our way returning to his
home country with precious gifts our ship was overturned in a hurricane and
the three of us barely escaped death. In the course of traveling over the obstacles
of mountains and rivers we suffered the hardships of cold and hunger. Because
one word was uncongenial to Simhala, he forsook me and, using insolent lan-
guage, he slandered me as a ráksasi. It is too far away to return to my own
country and if I stay here I will have to live in solitude. Because I am in such
a dilemma I have come to state my case to you." Simha said, “If what you
have said is true, then come in and live in my house."

Simhala returned shortly after the raksasi took up her abode and his father
said to him, “How is it that you value wealth but slight your wife and son?"
Simhala said, “She is but a raksasi/" and then told everything to his father.
His clanspeople and relatives all came to expel her, but the raksasi lodged
an accusation against them before the king. The king was ready to mete out
punishment to Simhala, who said, “She is a raksasi full of feminine bewitch-
ment." Tthe king was already attracted by the beauty of the raksasi, and
believeing that his words untrue, he said to Simhala, “If you insist on deserting
this woman, leave her in my harem.” Simhala said, “I am afraid it will cause
you disaster. The raksasis are man-eaters!" Тһе king would not listen to
Simhala's advice, however, and took the raksasi as his wife.

In the latter half of the night she flew back to the precious island and sum-
moned the five hundred raksasis to come with her to the palace. There they
repeated evil incantations and committed cruelties, eating the flesh and drink-
ing the blood of the people and animals in the palace. Afterward they brought
the remains of the corpses back to the precious island.

At dawn the following morning the ministers came to have an audience
with the king but they found the palace gate tightly closed, and though they
waited for a long time they heard no one speaking. So they broke the door
open, entered the palace, and found it empty except for heaps of skeletons.

290

Fascicle XI

Startled at the sight, they looked at each other helplessly, crying and wailing
in grief, not knowing the cause of the calamity. When Simhala told them the
story the ministers realized that the king had suffered from his own actions.

The state assistants and old ministers, as well as senior officials and veteran
generals, then went in search of a virtuous and talented person of sublime
character to serve as king. They all esteemed Simhala as a person of blessed-
ness and wisdom. They discussed the matter, saying, "The nomination ofa
king should not be done at random. A king should be a person of congenital
blessedness and wisdom, and he should be sensitive and sagacious. Without
blessedness and wisdom he cannot enjoy the throne, and without sensitivity
and sagacity how can he manage state affairs? Simhala is someone who is
endowed with such qualities. He foresaw in a dream a presage of disaster
and inspired the heavenly horse [to rescue him]. Out of loyalty, he pleaded
with the king against the raksasi, and through his cleverness he preserved
his own life. It is destined by heaven that he should start a new dynasty."
Simhala declined the honor but his refusal was not accepted. So he agreed
to hold sway according to the principle of the golden mean and, after paying
due respect to the ministers, he ascended the throne. He corrected former
corrupt practices and commended sages and good people. He issued an order,
saying, “My former merchant companions are still in the country of the
raksasis. I do not know whether they are alive or dead and their fate is
unknown. In order to rescue them we must reorganize our troops. It is a bless-
ing of the country to succor those who are in trouble and sympathize with
those who are loyal. As for the collection of gems and valuables, this will
also be to the nation's advantage." Then he arrayed his troops and sent them
across the sea.

At that time the pennant of evil omen on the gate of the iron city quivered.
The raksasis, frightened by the sight, came out to receive the troops, intending
to cheat and tempt them with seductive bewitchment. Knowing their fraud-
ulence well, the king, Simhala, ordered his soldiers to recite incantations and
to bravely undertake military action. The raksasis tumbled in retreat, either
escaping to hide in an islet or drowning in the great sea. The iron city was
destroyed and the iron prison broken; all the merchants were released and a
large quantity of pearls and gems was obtained. Common people were invited
to immigrate to the precious island, where they constructed a capital city and

291

934a

934b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

built villages and towns. Consequently the country was established, called
Simhala, after the name of their king. This tale of Simhala is a story of Sakya
Tathagata in one of his previous incarnations.

Formerly the inhabitants of the country of Simhala worshiped only inap-
propriate gods. During the first century after the Buddha's demise, King
A$oka's younger brother, Mahendra, relinquished the secular life of passionate
desire and aimed at the fruition of sainthood; he attained the six supernatural
powers and possessed the eight emancipations. He walked through the air
and came to this country to propagate the right Dharma and spread the
Buddha's bequeathed teachings. Since then the people [of this country] have
followed the pure faith. There are several hundred monasteries with more
than twenty thousand monks who follow the teachings of both the Mahayana
and Sthavira schools. More than two hundred years after the arrival of the
buddha-dharma they divided into two separate sects, each specializing in its
own theories. One was the Mahavihara sect, which refuted the Mahayana
teachings and advocated Hinayana tenets. The other was the Abhayagiri sect,
which studied the teachings of both yanas (vehicles) and propagated the
Tripitaka. The monks, strict and pure in practicing the disciplinary rules, are
experts in meditation and have brilliant wisdom. Many of them have model
conduct and serve as teachers of good behavior.

Beside the royal palace is the Temple of the Buddha's Tooth, several hundred
feet high and decorated with pearls and rare gems. A signal post is installed
on the temple, with a huge padmaraga (ruby) affixed to it, which emits a reful-
gent light that when viewed from a distance shines as brightly as a star, day or
night. The king bathes the tooth relic three times a day with scented water and
burns powdered incense as an offering, in an extremely opulent manner.

Beside the Temple ofthe Buddha's Tooth is a small shrine, also decorated
with various lustrous gems, inside of whicd is a golden image of the Buddha,
cast after the form of a previous king of this country, with a precious gem
embedded in the protuberance on the head. A thief once intended to steal the
gem but the shrine was guarded at one door after another in enclosures of rail-
ings under close surveillance. So he dug an underground passage and entered
the temple through the tunnel. When he attempted to take the gem, however,
the image rose higher and higher. The thief could not reach the gem and with-
drew, saying with a sigh, “When the Tathagata was practicing the bodhisattva

292

Fascicle XI

way he cherished a great mind and made a solemn vow that out of compassion
he would give everything, including his life and country, to the living beings
of the four forms of birth. How can it be, then, that his image is so stingy
and unwilling to part with the gem? I may well say that it does not know of
the past events." At these words, the image bent its head to allow the man
to take away the gem. Having obtained the gem, the thief went to find a pur-
chaser. People who saw it said, “This is the gem that was on the protuberance
of the golden image of the Buddha made by the previous king. Where did
you get this? Are you trying to sell it here?" They seized him and reported
to the king. When the king asked him where he got it the thief said, “The
Buddha gave it to me. I did not steal it." Thinking that the thief was being
dishonest, the king sent people to view the image and they found its head
was inclined. Seeing this spiritual manifestation, the king strengthened his
faith. He did not punish the man but redeemed the gem for a large ransom.
It was reset on the head of the image as an adornment for the protuberance.
That is why the head of the image is still bending down up to now.

Beside the royal palace there was a great kitchen, which provided food
for eighteen thousand monks every day. At mealtimes the monks came with
their almsbowls to receive food, and after receiving their share they returned
to their respective abodes. Since the time Buddhism was first introduced into
this country, the tradition of making offerings to the monks has been carried
out from generation to generation up to the present age. Owing to political
turmoil and the lack of an established king in the last decade or so, however,
this tradition has not been maintained.

Along the seacoast of this country pearls and gems are produced. When
the king came to pray to the gods they would present him with extraordinary
items. Townspeople come to dig for gems up and down but the output varies
according to one's luck. They have to pay taxes on whatever amount of gems
they procure. At the southeast corner of the country is Lanka Mountain with
lofty cliffs and deep valleys that are haunted by spirits and ghosts. The Tatha-
gata once came here and delivered the Larika-sütra.

Sailing south of this country for several thousand Zi, one reaches the island
of Narikela. The islanders are short in stature, about three feet tall. Although
they have human bodies their mouths are like the beaks of birds. They raise
no crops and live only on coconuts.

293

934c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Sailing westward from the island of Narikela for several thousand /i, one
comes to a solitary islet. On the eastern cliff there is a stone image of the
Buddha, over one hundred feet high, facing east in a sedentary posture, with
a moonstone as the protuberance on its head. When the moonlight shines
upon it water flows out from the gem, over the rocky slope down to the valley.
A company of merchants was once driven by a hurricane to this solitary islet,
and because the salty seawater was undrinkable they suffered thirst for a
long time. It happened to be a full moon day and the water flowing down
from the top of the image saved all the merchants. Thinking that they had
been saved by spirits moved by their sincerity, they stayed there for a few
days. When the moon was overshadowed by the lofty cliffs no water flowed
down. The chief of the merchants said, “It may not be for the sake of saving
us that the water flowed down. I have heard that when a moonstone is under
the shining moonlight water flows out from it. Is it possible that a moonstone
is on top of the Buddha’s image?” They climbed up the cliffs to have a look
and saw that the protuberance on the head of the image was made of moon-
stone. A man who had witnessed the event related the whole story.

Sailing to the west from the country [Simhala] for several thousand Ji,
one reaches a great precious island that is not inhabited by human beings but
is merely an abode of deities. On a quiet night one may see from a distance
the brightly illuminated mountains and rivers. Many merchants visited this
island but none of them obtained anything.

From the north of the country of Dravida, entering a wild jungle and passing
by isolated cities and small towns where evil people caused trouble to way-
farers, I traveled more than two thousand /i and arrived in the country of
Konkanapura (in the domain of South India). The country of Konkanapura
is more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over thirty li in
circuit. The land is fertile, yielding rich crops, and the climate is warm and
hot. The people, who are impetuous by custom, are dark in complexion and
fierce and tough in disposition, but they are fond of learning and uphold
virtue and arts. There are more than a hundred monasteries with over ten
thousand monks who study and practice the teachings of both the Mahayana
and Hinayana schools. Deva temples number several hundred and heretics
of different faiths live together.

294

Fascicle XI

Next to the city of the royal palace is a great monastery with over three
hundred monks, all of whom are people of outstanding virtue and talent. In
the monastery there is a great temple more than a hundred feet high, in which
is preserved a precious crown of Prince Sarvarthasiddha, less than two feet
high, adorned with precious jewels and kept in a precious chest. On each
fast day it is taken out, placed on a high dais, and incense and flowers are
offered to it. It sometimes emits a bright light.

In the great monastery next to the city there is a temple more than fifty
feet high, in which is enshrined a statue of Maitreya Bodhisattva, over ten
feet tall, carved out of sandalwood. On fast days it sometimes emits a divine
light. It was made by the arhat Srutivimsatikoti.

Not far to the north of the city is a wood of tāla (fan palm) trees more
than thirty /i in circuit. The leaves of this kind of tree are long, broad, and
glossy, and they are used as writing paper in various countries. In the wood
there is a stupa that marks the place where the four past buddhas sat and
walked up and down. Beside it is another stupa in which the relics of the
arhat Srutivimsatikoti are preserved.

Not far to the east of the city 1s a stupa whose base has collapsed; the
remaining part is about thirty feet above the ground. I heard some old people
say that it contains relics of the Tathagata that occasionally emit a divine
light on fast days. Once the Tathagata preached the Dharma at this place and
manifested supernatural powers to convert a mass of people.

Not far to the southwest of the city 1s a stupa more than a hundred feet
high built by King Asoka at the spot where the arhat Srutivimáatikoti showed
great supernatural powers to convert living beings. Beside it is the ruined
base of a monastery constructed by the arhat.

From here going northwest and entering a great wild jungle infested with
ferocious animals, harassed by cruel bandits in gangs, I journeyed for two
thousand and four or five hundred /i and reached the country of Maharastra
(in the domain of South India). The country of Maharastra is more than six
thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, bordered by a large river on the
west, is over thirty /i in circuit. The land is fertile and yields plenty of crops.
The climate is warm and hot and the people, simple and honest by custom,
are tall and sturdy in stature and are proud and carefree by nature. They are

295

935a

935b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

grateful for kindness and take revenge for injustices. If anyone insults them
they will risk their lives to avenge themselves. They extend help selflessly
to those who come seeking refuge in distress. When they are about to take
vengeance they notify their opponent beforehand, so that both parties can
put on armor to fight a duel. On the battlefield they chase after defeated ene-
mies but they do not kill those who have surrendered. No punishment is
meted out to defeated soldiers and generals but they are made to put on
women's clothing to shame them into committing suicide. The state keeps
several hundred warriors. Before each decisive battle they become intoxicated
with wine, and a single one of them, leading the vanguard of the fighters,
can frustrate the bellicose spirit of a host of enemies. If they injure the inhab-
itants the state will not punish them. The vanguard beats the drums each time
they come out for an battle. Moreover, they raise several hundred violent
elephants, which are also fed with wine before taking part in an engagement.
The [animals] trample and stampede wildly and break down all resistance
before them. Relying on the strength of these warriors and elephants, the
king looks down on neighboring countries.

The king, named Pulakesin, is a ksatriya by caste. He is an astute man of
farsighted resourcefulness who extends kindness to all and his subjects serve
him with perfect loyalty. The great King Silàditya has invaded from the east
and west and a number of countries far and near have either pledged allegiance
to him or become his vassals; only the country [of Maharastra] has refused
to acknowledge his suzerainty. On several occasions Siladitya led the armed
forces of the five parts of India and summoned heroic fighters of various
countries under his personal command to invade this country but he failed
to win a victory. Such is the militancy of this country but its social customs
are quite different. The people are fond of learning and profess both heterodox
and orthodox doctrines. There are more than a hundred monasteries with
over five thousand monks who study comprehensively both the Mahayana
and Hinayana teachings. Deva temples are counted by the hundreds and the
heretics are quite numerous.

Within and without the great city are five stupas built by King Asoka to
mark sites where the four past buddhas sat and walked up and down. The
other stone and brick stupas are too numerous to be described in detail. Not
far to the south of the city is an old monastery in which is enshrined a stone

296

Fascicle XI

image of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva that possesses latent spiritual power
and often answers prayers.

In the eastern part of the country there is a great mountain whose peaks
join together to form a screen, with steep cliffs rising in a range. In the deep
valley there is a monastery with lofty halls and spacious houses on the peaks
at the back and storied pavilions and mulitiered terraces standing before the
cliffs, facing the gully. This monastery was built by the arhat Acara (known
as Suoxing, "Behavior," in Chinese), who was a native of West India. After
his mother had died he observed where she had been reborn and saw that
she was reborn as a girl in this country. The arhat came here with the intention
of guiding and taking his mother [into the path of Buddhism] as the occasion
arose. He entered the village to collect alms and came to the house where
his mother had been reborn. When the girl came out to offer him food her
breasts spontaneously yielded milk. Her kinsfolk thought it was inauspicious
but the arhat told them the cause of the phenomenon and thereupon the girl
realized the fruition of sainthood. In order to repay the kindness of his mother
for giving birth to him in her previous life as a result of karmic forces, the
arhat built this monastery out of gratitude for her deep virtue.

The great temple of the monastery is more than a hundred feet high;
enshrined within is a stone image of the Buddha, over seventy feet tall. Above
the image are suspended seven tiers of stone canopies that are neither attached
nor supported, each separated from the one above it by a space of about three
feet. I heard some old people say that the canopies were supported by the
willpower of the arhat, or by his supernatural powers, or by the efficacy of
drugs and magic. I made an actual investigation but could not find out the
real cause. All around the temple, engraved on the stone walls, are carvings
depicting the events of the Tathagata when he was practicing the bodhisattva
way in his previous lives, such as the good omens of his realization of saint-
hood and the spiritual signs of his entering nirvana, including all major and
minor items carved in full detail. Outside the gate of the monastery, at the
south and north and to the right and left, are stone elephants, each standing
at a point. I heard some native people say that these elephants have occa-
sionally trumpeted and caused earthquakes. Formerly Dignaga Bodhisattva
spent most of his time in this monastery.

297

935c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

From here going west for more than one thousand /i and after crossing the
Narmada River, I reached the country of Bharukacchapa (in the domain of
South India). The country of Bharukacchapa is two thousand four hundred
or five hundred /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit.
The soil is saline and plants are sparse. Salt is produced by boiling seawater,
and the sea provides profitable occupations. The climate is hot, with abrupt
cyclones blowing violently. The people are stingy by custom and deceitful
in disposition. They are ignorant of learning and arts and believe in both het-
erodox and orthodox doctrines. There are over ten monasteries with more
than three hundred monks, who study Mahayana and Sthavira teachings.
Deva temples are more than ten in number and the heretics live together.

From here going northwest for more than two thousand /i, I reached the coun-
try of Malava (1.е., the country of South Lata in the domain of South India).
The country of Malava is more than six thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city, over thirty /i in circuit, is situated on the southeast bank of the Mahr
River. The land is fertile, producing rich crops, with luxuriant vegetation and
plenty of flowers and fruit. The soil is specially good for growing winter
wheat, so the inhabitants mostly eat pancakes and baked wheat flour. The
people are benign by nature and are generally intelligent. They speak a refined
language and are well educated. In all the five parts of India there are two
countries in which learning is emphasized; one is the country of Malava in
the southwest and the other is the country of Magadha in the northeast. The
people [of Magadha] prize virtue, advocate loving-kindness and, being diligent
and clever, they work hard at learning. In this country [of Malava] both het-
erodox and orthodox doctrines are followed and there are several hundred
monasteries with more than twenty thousand monks who study the teachings
of the Hinayana Sammitiya school. Deva temples are several hundred in
number with numerous heretics, mostly ash-smearing ascetics.

It is recorded in the local history that sixty years ago the king, named
Siladitya, was a person of brilliant wisdom and resourcefulness with broad
and profound knowledge. He protected and fostered all living beings and
venerated the Triple Gem. From his birth up to his old age he was never
angry with anyone and never killed living beings. He was so kind that even
the drinking water for elephants and horses was filtered before it was given

298

Fascicle XI

to them, lest insects in the water would be injured. During his reign of more
than fifty years, wild animals were friendly with people and in the whole
country the people never killed or harmed them. Beside the royal palace was
a temple built by the most skilled workmen, decorated with all kinds of adorn-
ments. Images ofthe seven buddhas were kept inside the temple. An unlimited
assembly was held regularly every year, to which monks from the four quarters
were invited to receive offerings of the four monastic requisites, or the three
types of robes and the seven kinds of precious gems. This good deed has been
done from generation to generation without interruption.

More than twenty /i to the northwest of the great city one comes to a brah-
man village. Beside it is a pit, which never overflows when water flows into
it from different sources, even under the excessive rains that last ten days at
a stretch during the autumn and summer seasons. Beside the pit was a small
stupa. I heard some old people say that this was the place where an arrogant
brahman of yore fell into hell alive.

In this village there was once a brahman who was a man of erudition, the
most prominent among his contemporaries, learned in both Buddhist and
heretical texts. He was also an expert in the art of calendrical calculation and
astronomy. As a person of lofty character, his fame spread far. The king
respected him appreciatively and the people venerated him as a teacher. His
disciples, who were counted in the thousands, followed his theories and
admired his way of teaching. He often said, “I was born into the world to
transmit the teachings of the sages in order to guide ordinary people. None
of the former sages or future philosophers are my equal. The people are
enthusiastic in propagating the theories of Mahesvaradeva, Vasudeva,
Narayanadeva, and the World-honored Buddha, and they draw pictures of
them for pious worship. But I now surpass them all in virtue and my reputation
is dominant at the present time. I should be different from them all, otherwise
how can I distinguish myself?" So he carved images of Mahesvaradeva,
Vasudeva, Narayanadeva, and the World-honored Buddha in red sandalwood
and made a seat with four legs, which was carried wherever he went. Such
was his attitude of overweening pride.

At that time in West India there was a bhiksu called Bhadraruci (known
as Xianai, "Friendly Affection,” in Chinese), a highly learned logician who
had fully mastered the theories of heretical treatises. He was pure in conduct

299

936a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

and observed the disciplinary rules in such a perfect manner that his moral
influence affected others, just like the strong fragrance of flowers does. He
had little desire and was quite content, never seeking material welfare. Having
heard about the arrogant brahman, the bhiksu said with a sigh, “What a pity!
At present the world is devoid of a great teacher, so an ignorant man dares
to commit treacherous deeds."

[The bhiksu] carried his pewter staff and traveled far to this country. He
told his intention to the king, who, on seeing that he was dressed in a shabby
robe, did not have any feeling of veneration for him. Due to his lofty ambition,
however, the king was obliged to pay the monk due respect. He prepared
debating seats and invited the brahman, who said with a smile, “Who is it that
dares to cherish such an ambition?" He ordered his disciples to come to the
debating ground, and hundreds and thousands of people assembled to listen
to the argumentation. Bhadraruci, wearing his shabby robe, sat on a heap of
grass spread on the ground, while the brahman sat on the seat that he carried
with him. The brahman refuted the right Dharma and propagated erroneous
theories. The bhiksu argued fluently for several rounds and at last defeated
the brahman [in the debate]. The king said [to the brahman], *With your false
repute you have cheated the king and beguiled the people for a long time. It
is laid down in the ancient code that the party defeated in a debate should be
put to death." A piece of hot iron from a stove was made ready for the brahman
to sit on. The brahman, pressed in such an awkward predicament, took refuge
in Bhadraruci and pleaded for his help. The bhiksu said to the king, “The
influence of Your Majesty's kindness spreads far and your good reputation is
known to all. Please be compassionate and do not resort to cruel punishment.
Pardon him for his mistakes and let him go wherever he wishes." The king
ordered the brahman to ride on a donkey to announce his defeat all around
the city. Put to such shame, the brahman felt so gravely insulted that he spat
blood. Hearing this, the bhiksu went to comfort him and said, “You are learned
in both Buddhist and heretical doctrines and your fame reaches far and near.
Concerning the matter of glory or insult, you should know how to deal with
it. What is substantial in the matter of fame?" The brahman, indignant, rebuked
the bhiksu, slandered the Mahayana teachings, and scorned the ancient saints.
Before he had finished speaking his blasphemy the earth cracked open and
he fell alive into the crevice. The site still remains there.

300

Fascicle XI

From there rounding a cape and going northwest for two thousand four hun-
dred or five hundred /;, I reached the country of Atali (in the domain of South
India). The country of Atali 1s more than six thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city 15 over twenty /i in circuit. The inhabitants are wealthy and pros-
perous, having plenty of pearls and gems. Although they pursue farming,
trade is the preferred calling. The soil is sandy and saline, yielding few flowers
and little fruit. The country produces pepper trees, the leaves of which are
like those of the pepper tree growing in the region of Shu [in China], and it
also produces the xunlu (frankincense) tree, whose leaves resemble those of
the birch-leaf pear. The climate is hot and windy and there are dust storms.
The people are mean by nature; they value wealth and despise virtue. Their
writing and spoken language, as well as their manners and laws, are generally
the same as in the country of Malava. Most of them do not believe in gaining
happiness [by performing meritorious deeds]. Even those who believe in it
also worship heavenly deities. There are over ten houses of worship and the
heretics live together.

Going northwest from the country of Malava on a journey of three days, I
reached the country of Kita (?) (in the domain of South India). The country
of Kita 1s more than three thousand /i in circuit and its capital city 1s over
twenty li in circuit. It has a large number of wealthy households. It has no
sovereign lord and is under the jurisdiction of the country of Malava, and its
natural conditions and products are similar to those of that country. There
are over ten monasteries with more than a thousand monks, who study and
practice the teachings of both the Mahayana and Hinayana schools. There
are scores of deva temples and numerous heretics.

From here going northward for more than one thousand /i, I reached the
country of Valabhi (1.е., the country of North Lata, in the domain of South
India). The country of Valabhi is more than six thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city is over thirty /i in circuit. The native products, climatic conditions,
social customs, and temperament of the people are similar to those of the
country of Malava. The inhabitants are prosperous, possessing enormous
wealth. More than one hundred families have each accumulated property
worth one hundred kotis of coins. Many rare goods from distant places аге
gathered in this country. There are more than a hundred monasteries with

301

936b

936c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

over six thousand monks, most of whom study the Dharma of the Hinayana
Sammitiya school. Deva temples number several hundreds and the heretics
are quite numerous.

When the Tathagata was living in the world he repeatedly visited this
country, and King Asoka erected monuments and built stupas to mark the
places where the Buddha had sojourned. Sites where the three past buddhas
sat, walked up and down, and preached the Dharma are located at intervals.
The reigning king, called Dhruvapatu (known as Changrui, “Permanent
Acuteness," in Chinese), is a ksatriya by caste and a nephew of the former
King Siladitya of the country of Malava and the son-in-law of the present
King Siladitya of the country of Kanyakubja.

[Dhruvapatu] is a hot-tempered man of shallow intellect but he sincerely
believes in the Triple Gem. Every year he convokes a great assembly for
seven days to offer the best delicious food to the monks and present them
with the three types of clerical robes and medicine, as well as the seven kinds
of valuable gems and jewels. After presenting the gifts he redeems them with
a payment of double their monetary value. He esteems virtue, honors good
people, respects the Way, and emphasizes learning. He pays special reverence
to eminent monks coming from afar. Not far from the city is a great monastery
built by the arhat Acara, where the bodhisattvas Gunamati and Sthiramati
stayed and composed treatises that are widely circulated.

From here going northwest for more than seven hundred /i, I reached the
country of Anandapura (in the domain of West India). Anandapura is more
than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit.
It has a large number of wealthy households. It has no sovereign lord and is
under the jurisdiction of the country of Malava; its natural products, climatic
conditions, language, and laws are similar to those of that country. There are
more than ten monasteries with less than a thousand monks, who study the
teachings of the Hinayana Sammitiya school. Deva temples are counted by
scores and the heretics live together.

From the country of Valabhi going westward for more than five hundred Ji,
I reached the country of Surattha (in the domain of West India). The country
of Surattha is more than four thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over
thirty /i in circuit, with the Maht River at its west. It has a large number of

302

Fascicle XI

wealthy households, and it is under the jurisdiction of the country of Valabhi.
The saline soil yields few flowers and little fruit. Although the cold and hot
seasons alternate normally the weather is often windy. The people are stingy
by custom and frivolous and impetuous by nature. They are not fond of learn-
ing and believe in both heterodox and orthodox doctrines. There are more
than fifty monasteries with over three thousand monks, most of whom study
Mahayana teachings and the theories of the Sthavira school. Deva temples
are over a hundred in number and the heretics live together. As the country
is situated on the way to the West Sea, the inhabitants procure profit from
through sea trade and commerce.

Not far from the city is Ujjanta Mountain, and on top is a monastery whose
cells and corridors are mostly excavated into the cliffs amid luxuriant trees
and meandering streams. This was a place frequented by saints and sages
and where divine rsis dwelled.

Going northward from the country of Valabhi for more than one thousand
eight hundred /;, I reached the country of Gürjara (in the domain of West
India). The country of Gürjara is more than five thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city, called Bhillamala, is over thirty /i in circuit. The native products
and social customs are the same as those in the country of Surattha. It is
densely populated and the people are wealthy and prosperous. Most serve the
heretics as their teachers but a few believe in the buddha-dharma. There is
one monastery with more than a hundred monks who study the teachings of
the Sarvastivada sect of Hinayana Buddhism. There are several tens of deva
temples and the heretics live together. The king, a ksatriya by caste, is a young
person of sublime wisdom and courage. He deeply believes in the buddha-
dharma and is lofty in character, endowed with extraordinary talent.

From here going southeast for more than two thousand eight hundred /7, I
reached the country of Ujjayant (in the domain of South India). The country
of Ujjayani is more than six thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over
thirty /i in circuit. The natural products and social customs are the same as
in the country of Surattha. It is densely populated and the people are wealthy
and prosperous. There are several tens of monasteries, most of which are
dilapidated; only three to five remain intact. There are over three hundred
monks who study and practice the teachings of both the Mahayana and

303

937a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Hinayana schools. There are several tens of deva temples and the heretics
all live together. The king, a brahman by caste, is well read in heterodox
books and does not believe in the right Dharma. Not far from the city is a
stupa built to mark the place where King Asoka created a hellish prison.

From here going northeast for more than one thousand Zi, I reached the country
of Zhizhituo (in the domain of South India). The country of Zhizhituo is
more than four thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is fifteen or sixteen
li in circuit. The soil is fertile and crops are abundant. It is good for growing
pulse and wheat and there are plenty of flowers and fruit. The climate 1s
pleasant and the people are of a benign and affable disposition. Most of them
believe in heterodoxy and a few respect the buddha-dharma. There are several
tens of monasteries but few monks. Deva temples are over ten in number
and there are more than a thousand heretics (priests). The king is a brahman
by caste, earnestly believes in the Triple Gem, and esteems people of virtue.
Many learned scholars of various places assemble in this country.

From here going northward for more than nine hundred /;, I reached the coun-
try of Mahe$varapura (in the domain of Central India). The country of
Mahe$varapura is more than three thousand /i in circuit and its capital city
is over thirty /i in circuit. The natural products and social customs are similar
to those of the country of Ujjayant. The people venerate heretics and do not
believe in the buddha-dharma. There are several tens of deva temples, mostly
belonging to the ash-smearing ascetics. The king is a brahman by caste and
does not respect the buddha-dharma very much.

From there I returned to the country of Gürjara and going northward again,
through wilderness and dangerous desert for more than one thousand and
nine hundred /i and crossing the great Sindhu River, I reached the country
of Sindhu (in the domain of West India). The country of Sindhu is more than
seven thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, Vichavapura, is over thirty /i
in circuit. The land is good for growing cereals and millet and wheat are
abundant. It produces gold, silver, and brass and it is suitable for rearing
cattle, sheep, camels, mules, and other domestic animals. The camels are
small in size and have only one hump. It produces plenty of red salt, the color
of red rock, while its white and black salt and white rock salt are used as

304

Fascicle XI

medicine by people in distant foreign countries. The people are violent but
upright by nature and are pugnacious and abusive. In learning they do not
aim at becoming erudite but they deeply believe in the buddha-dharma. There
are several hundred monasteries with more than ten thousand monks, all of
whom study the teachings of the Sammitiya school of Hinayana Buddhism.
They are mostly indolent people with a corrupt character. The good and assid-
uous monks live apart in quiet and secluded mountains and forests, and many
of them, working hard day and night, realize sainthood. There are more than
thirty deva temples and the heretics live together. The king, a siidra by caste,
is aman of simplicity and honesty and he respects the buddha-dharma. For-
merly the Buddha visited this country several times and therefore King ASoka
built several tens of stupas at the holy sites. The great arhat Upagupta visited
this country many times to preach the Dharma to guide the people. At all the
places where he sojourned monasteries, stupas, or both have been erected as
monuments to mark the sites, of which I had scant information.

In a district of slopes and marshes extending to more than a thousand /i
beside the Sindhu River there live several hundred, nearly a thousand, families
of ferocious people who made slaughtering their occupation and sustain
themselves by rearing cattle, without any other means of living. All the people,
male or female and regardless of nobility or lowliness, shave off their hair
and beards and dress in religious robes. They thus give the appearance of
being bhiksus (and bhiksunis) while engaging in secular affairs. They per-
sistently hold Hinayana views and slander Mahayana teachings. I heard some
elderly people say that in the old days the people of this place were cruel
and evil by nature. An arhat took pity on them in their degenerate state and
came flying through the air in order to edify them. He manifested great super-
natural powers and performed wonders to induce their faith. Through his
gradual teaching the people respected him with delight and were willing to
accept his instructions. Knowing that the people had become obedient, the
arhat told them to take refuge in the Triple Gem, quenched their ferocity,
and stopped them from killing living beings. They shaved off their hair, put
on religious robes, and respectfully practiced the instructions of the Dharma.
After a long time had passed and there were changes in the world, however,
they became imperfect in doing good deeds and returned to their evil habits.

305

937b

937c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Although they dress in religious robes they do not observe the disciplinary
rules, nor practice good deeds. The custom [of wearing robes] has been handed
down from generation to generation and has become a prevailing tradition.

From there going east for more than nine hundred /i, I crossed the Sindhu
River, reached the east bank, and arrived in the country of Mülasthanapura
(in the domain of West India). The country of Mülasthanapura is more than
four thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over thirty /i in circuit. The
country is densely populated with wealthy families and is subject to the coun-
try of Takka. The soil is fertile and the climate is mild and good for agriculture.
The people are honest and upright; they like learning and esteem virtue. Most
of them worship heavenly deities but a few believe in the buddha-dharma.
There are more than ten monasteries, mostly dilapidated, with few monks
who do not specialize in the theories of any particular school. There are eight
deva temples and the heretics live together.

There is a beautifully decorated Temple of the Sun God. The image of
the god is made of gold and adorned with precious ornaments. It has spiritual
perception and the power of penetration and its divine merits protect all
secretly. Female musicians play music incessantly and candles are kept
burning day and night. Incense and flowers are always offered without inter-
ruption. The kings and grand people of all the five parts of India come here
to give alms of jewels and valuables and they have established resthouses
to distribute food, drink, and medicine for the relief of the poor and sick.
There are always a thousand people coming from different countries to say
prayers. Around the temple there are ponds and flowery woods that provide
a very delightful resort.

From there going northeast for more than seven hundred Ji, I reached the
country of Parvata (in the domain of North India). The country of Parvata is
more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in
circuit. The country is densely populated and is subject to the country of
Takka. It yields plenty of dry rice and the soil is good for growing pulse and
wheat. The climate is mild and pleasant and the people are honest and upright
by custom, though hot-tempered by nature; they use vulgar words in their
speech. Their learning is deep and broad and they believe in both heterodoxy
and orthodoxy. There are more than ten monasteries with over a thousand

306

Fascicle XI

monks who study and practice the teachings of both the Mahayana and
Hinayana schools. There are four stupas built by King Asoka. Deva temples
number twenty and the heretics live together. Near the city there used to be
a great monastery with over a hundred monks, all of whom studied Mahayana
teachings. This is the place where the sastra master Jinaputra (meaning “Son
of Victory") composed the Commentary on the Yogacarabhümi-sastra, and
it is also where the sastra masters Bhadraruci and Gunaprabha became monks.
This great monastery was reduced to ruins by fire from heaven.

Going southwest from the country of Sindhu for one thousand and five or
six hundred /i, I reached the country of Audumbatira (in the domain of West
India). Audumbatira is more than five thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city, Kacchesvara, is over thirty /i in circuit. It is situated in the remote western
region near the Sindhu River, close to the great sea. The houses are beautifully
decorated and there are many jewels and gems. In recent years the country
has had no sovereign king and is subordinate to the country of Sindhu. The
land is low and moist and the soil is saline; wild weeds grow profusely and
few fields are cultivated. Although the country produces all kinds of cereals,
pulse and wheat are particularly abundant. The climate is somewhat cold
and hurricanes blow violently. Cattle, sheep, camels, mules, and the like are
reared. The people are hot-tempered by nature and do not like learning. Their
language is slightly different from that of Central India and they are by custom
simple and honest and respect the Triple Gem. There are more than eighty
monasteries with over five thousand monks, most of whom study the teachings
of the Sammittya school of Hinayana Buddhism. There are ten deva temples,
mostly inhabited by ash-smearing ascetics. In the city is a temple of Mahesvara
adorned with engravings and the image of the god has spiritual influence. It
is frequented by ash-smearing ascetics. In the old days the Tathagata visited
this country on several occasions to preach the Dharma to convert the people,
guiding ordinary people and benefiting the secular inhabitants. Thus King
ASoka built six stupas at the holy sites.

From here going west for less than two thousand /i, I reached the country of
Langala (in the domain of West India). The country of Langala is several
thousand /i on each of the four sides and its capital city, Sthüli$vara (?), is
thirty /i in circuit. The land is fertile and crops are abundant. The climate

307

938a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

and social customs are the same as in the country of Audumbatira. It is a
populous country and rich in precious jewels and gems. Situated at the seaside,
it Is on the way to the Women's Country. It has no supreme ruler; in each
valley the people have their own leaders who are independent of one another,
though all are subject to the country of Parsa. Their written language is gen-
erally the same as that of India but their spoken language differs slightly.
The people believe in both heterodoxy and orthodoxy. There are over one
hundred monasteries with more than six thousand monks who study and
practice both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. There are several hundred
deva temples and ash-smearing heretics are extremely numerous. Inside the
city is a magnificent and beautifully decorated temple of Mahesvara, which
is held in great esteem by the ash-smearing heretics.

Going northwest from there one would reach the country of Parsa. (Though
it is not in the domain of India I passed by it and put it here as an appendix.
It was formerly known as Bosi in abbreviation.) The country of Parsa is
several myriad /i in circuit and its capital city, Surasthana, is over forty /i in
circuit. Since the territory is vast the climate differs at various locales; generally
speaking, it is warm. Water is channeled to irrigate the fields and the people
are wealthy and prosperous. The country produces gold, silver, brass, quartz,
crystal, and other precious and unusual substances. Large pieces of brocade,
fine ramie cloth, woolen carpets, and the like are exquisitely woven. There
are many good horses and camels. Large silver coins are used for currency.
The people are hot-tempered by nature and have no etiquette by custom.
Their spoken and written languages differ from those of other countries.
There are no scholars or artists but there are many skillful artisans whose
products are much valued by the people of neighboring countries. They prac-
tice mixed marriage and corpses are mostly discarded. They are tall and stout
in stature and crop their hair short to expose the top of the head. They wear
clothes made of fur, ramie, and colored cotton. A household tax is levied at
the rate of four silver coins per head. There are numerous deva temples,
highly honored by the heretics of Dinapati (“Lord of the Day,” i.e., the sun).
There are two or three monasteries with a few hundred monks, all of whom
study the teachings of the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism. The
almsbowl of Sakya Buddha is kept in the palace of the country. In the eastern

308

Fascicle XI

part of the country is the city of Ormus; its inner city is not wide while the
outer city is more than sixty /i in circuit. The inhabitants are numerous and
wealthy. The northeast region borders on the country of Hrum, whose topog-
raphy and social customs are the same as in Parsa, but the features of the
people and their language differ. It is also a wealthy country, possessing
plenty of jewels and gems.

Southwest of the country of Hrum is the Women's Country, which is an
island. There are only female inhabitants there, without a single man. It pro-
duces various valuable goods and is a dependency of Hrum. The king of
Hrum sends men to mate with the female inhabitants every year, as it is their
custom not to bring up any male baby born to them.

Going northward from the country of Audumbatira for more than seven hun-
dred /i, I reached the country of Patasila (in the domain of West India). The
country of Patasila is more than three thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city is over twenty /i in circuit. It is well populated but without a sovereign
lord and is subject to the country of Sindhu. The land is sandy and salty and
chilly winds blow hard. There is plenty of pulse and wheat but few flowers
or fruit. The people are rustic and hot-tempered by nature and their language
differs from that of Central India. They are not fond of learning the arts but
they have pure faith. There are more than fifty monasteries with over three
thousand monks, all of whom study the teachings of the Sammitiya school
of Hinayana Buddhism. Deva temples number more than twenty, all belonging
to the ash-smearing heretics. In a large wood fifteen or sixteen /i north of the
city there is a stupa, several hundred feet high, built by King Asoka. It contains
a relic bone that occasionally emits a bright light. This is the place where the
Tathagata, as a rsi in a previous life, was killed by a king. Not far to the east
from here is an old monastery built by the great arhat Mahakatyayana. Beside
it stupas were built to mark sites where the four past buddhas sat and walked
up and down.

From here going northeast for more than three hundred /i, I reached the
country of Avanda (in the domain of West India). The country of Avanda is
two thousand and four or five hundred /i in circuit and its capital city is over
twenty /i in circuit. It has no sovereign lord and is subject to the country of
Sindhu. The soil is good for growing crops and pulse and wheat are particularly

309

938b

938c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

abundant. There are not many flowers or much fruit and vegetation is sparse.
The climate is windy and cold and the people are rustic and violent by nature.
Speaking a simple and plain language, they do not uphold learning but they
fix their minds on and have pure faith in the Triple Gem. There are over
twenty monasteries with more than two thousand monks, most of whom
study the teachings of the Sammitiya school of Hinayana Buddhism. There
are five deva temples belonging to the ash-smearing heretics.

In a great bamboo grove not far away from the city are the ruins of an old
monastery. This is the place where in olden days the Tathagata gave permission
to the bhiksus to wear jifuxi (boots). Beside the ruins is a stupa built by King
A$oka. Although the foundation has collapsed the remaining structure is still
over a hundred feet high. In a temple beside the stupa a standing image of
the Buddha made out of blue stone is enshrined. On fast days it often emits
a divine light. Further away to the south for over eight hundred paces, in a
wood, is a stupa built by King Asoka. Once the Tathagata stayed at this place
and because it was a cold night, he covered himself with all three of his robes,
one over the other. The following morning he permitted the bhiksus to wear
double robes. In this wood is a site where the Buddha walked up and down.
There are also other stupas built close to each other to mark the places where
the four past buddhas sat and walked back and forth. Hair and nail relics of
the Tathagata are preserved in one of the stupas and they often emit a bright
light on fast days.

From here going northeast for more than nine hundred /;, I reached the country
of Varnu (in the domain of West India). The country of Varnu is more than
four thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit. It is
densely populated and is subject to the country of Kapisi. The land is moun-
tainous with many woods and crops are sown in season. The climate is some-
what cold and the people are rustic and violent by nature and vulgar and
mean in disposition. Their language is rather similar to that of Central India.
They believe in both heterodoxy and orthodoxy and are not fond of learning.
There are several tens of monasteries, mostly dilapidated, with more than
three hundred monks, all of whom study Mahayana teachings. There are five
deva temples with many ash-smearing heretics. Not far away to the south of
the city there is an old monastery. In the past the Tathagata preached the

310

Fascicle XI

Dharma at this place to teach the people for their welfare and enlightenment.
Beside it are sites where the four past buddhas sat and walked up and down.
I heard some local people say that the west side of the country borders the
country of Kaikanan, which is located among large mountains in which there
are chieftains in the different valleys but no sovereign ruler. It has many
sheep and horses; the good horses are particularly big as they are of a rare
breed that 1s greatly valued by neighboring regions.

From here again going northwest, crossing great mountains and wide rivers
and passing small towns on a journey of more than two thousand /i, I came
out of the domain of India and reached the country of Jaguda (also known
as the country of Caoli).

End of Fascicle XI of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

311

939a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Note on Simhala
by Zeng He

The country of Simhala, known as the Land of Lions in olden times, and
also called the Country of No Sorrow, is south of India. It is also called the
Precious Island because it produces many rare gems. Sakyamuni Buddha
once transformed himself into a man named Simhala and he was made king
by the people of the country, as he was a person who possessed all virtues.
Therefore it was also called the country of Simhala. With his great supernatural
powers he destroyed the great iron city, annihilated the raksasis, and rescued
the victims who were in peril. He then constructed a capital city and built
towns to convert and guide the local people. After having propagated the
right teaching he passed away, leaving a tooth behind in this country. It is
adamantine and will last for many kalpas without being damaged. It emits
a precious light like that of a brilliant star, or like the moon shining in the
night or the sun brightening the daytime. Whenever a prayer is said to [the
tooth relic] it responds as swiftly as an echo. In times of natural disaster an
earnest prayer will bring instant divine auspiciousness. What is now called
the Mountain of Ceylon was the country of Simhala in ancient times. Beside
the royal palace is a temple for the Buddha's tooth relic, decorated with
various gems and shining with great brilliance. It has been worshiped from
generation to generation without negligence.

The reigning king A lie ku nai er (Bhuvanaikabahu V, r. 1372—1408 C.E.)
is a native of Sol. He is a brutal and tyrannical ruler who worships heretics,
does not venerate the Triple Gem, has no feeling of pity for his people, and
blasphemes the Buddha's tooth relic.

In the third year of the Yongle period (1405 C.E.) ofthe great Ming dynasty,
the Emperor dispatched the eunuch Zheng He as an imperial envoy to send
incense and flowers to that country and make offerings [to the tooth relic].
Zheng He exhorted King Bhuvanaikabahu V to respect Buddhism and stay
away from heretics. The king was enraged and intended to kill the envoy.
Having got wind of the intrigue, Zheng He fled. Later he was again sent to
bestow gifts on various foreign countries and visited the king of the Mountain
of Ceylon, who was all the more arrogant and disrespectful and attempted
to kill him. The king mobilized fifty thousand troops to fell trees to obstruct

312

Note on Simhala

the road and sent a contingent to ransack the seagoing vessels. At that point
a subordinate official leaked the secret and Zheng He and his men, having
realized the situation, immediately tried to return to their ships. The road had
been cut off so they could only secretly send some men out, but the captors
of the ships would not allow them to board. Zheng He, commanding three
thousand soldiers, made an assault by a shortcut at night and took possession
of the royal city.

The native troops that had captured the ships joined forces with the native
soldiers on land and launched a counterattack from all four sides. They
besieged the royal city with a tight encirclement and fought for six days.
Zheng He and his men captured the king and opened the city gate, and, after
cutting down trees to make a passage, they retreated while fighting. Going
for more than twenty /i, they reached the ships in the evening. They brought
the Buddha's tooth relic on board with due ceremony. It emitted a brilliant
light in a most unusual manner, as mentioned above, and a peal of thunder
rumbled with such a loud crash that people saw the lightning from a great
distance and hid themselves. The ships sailed on the great sea without encoun-
tering a windstorm [and they were as safe] as if they were walking on dry
land. Ferocious dragons and mischievous fishes emerged before the ships
but caused no harm. All the people on board the ships were safe and happy.

On the ninth day of the seventh month in the ninth year of Yongle (1411
C.E.) they returned to the capital. The Emperor ordered that a precious diamond
seat be prepared in the imperial city for the tooth relic, in order to make offer-
ings to it for the benefit of living beings and the welfare of the people, so
that they might perform countless meritorious deeds.

313

Translator's Introduction

Fascicle XII

Twenty-two Countries, from
Jaguda to Gostana

1. The Country of Jaguda 14. The Country of Kurana

2. The Country of Vrjisthana 15. The Country of Dharmasthiti
3. The Country of Andarab 16. The Country of Sikni

4. The Country of Khost 17. The Country of Shangmi
5. The Country of Huoh 18. The Country of Kabhanda
6. The Country of Mungan 19. The Country of Wusha

7. The Country of Alini 20. The Country of Kasha

8. The Country of Rahu 21. The Country of Cukuka
9. The Country of Krisma 22. The Country of Gostana
10. The Country of Parghar Eulogy of the Buddha

11. The Country of Himatala Eulogy of Xuanzang

12. The Country of Badakshan Note by Bianji

13. The Country of Invakan

The country of Jaguda is more than seven thousand /; in circuit and its capital
city, called Hexina (Ghazni), is over thirty /i in circuit; the capital is sometimes
located in the city of Hesaluo (Guzar), which is also over thirty /i in circuit.
Both cities are strongly fortified in invulnerable positions. The mountains
and valleys are rich in natural resources and the cultivated farmlands, divided
by ridges, are high and dry. Crops are sown in proper seasons. Winter wheat
is abundant and vegetation 1s luxuriant with profuse flowers and fruit. The
soil is good for growing aromatic turmeric and it produces the hingu herb
(Ferula asafoetida), which grows in Rama-Indus Valley. In the city of Hesaluo
there are gushing springs and the water flows to all sides; the people make
use of it for irrigation. The climate is severely cold with much frost and snow.
The people are frivolous and impetuous by nature and deceitful in disposition.
They are fond of learning and are skillful in many kinds of crafts. They are
clever, if lacking in discernment, and can recite a work of several myriads of

939b

315

939c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

words in a day. Their written and spoken language differ from those of other
countries. They produce more empty talk than real action. Although they
worship various gods they respect the Triple Gem. There are several hundred
monasteries with more than ten thousand monks, all of whom study Mahayana
teachings. The reigning king is a man of pure faith who inherited the throne
handed down through many generations. He has engaged himself in performing
meritorious deeds and is intelligent and studious. There are more than ten
stupas built by King Asoka. Deva temples number several tens and the heretics,
who are in the majority, live together. Their disciples are extremely numerous
and they worship the god Suna.

Formerly this god moved from Aruna Mountain in the country of Kāpiśī
to Sunasira Mountain in the south of this country. Acting like a tyrant and
doing evil deeds, he rode roughshod over the inhabitants. Those who have
faith in him and seek his protection have their wishes fulfilled and those who
despise him incur calamity. Thus the people, far and near and high and low,
revere him with awe. The kings, ministers, officials, and common people,
who observe different customs in neighboring countries, come here without
making appointments on an auspicious day each year. They offer either gold,
silver, and rare gems or they present sheep, horses, and other domestic animals
to the god in competition with each other to show their piety and sincerity.
Therefore gold and silver are scattered all over the ground and sheep and
horses fill up the valley. Nobody dares to covet them; everyone is eager to
make offerings to the god. To those who respect and serve the heretics and
practice asceticism wholeheartedly, the god imparts magical incantations,
of which the heretics make effective use in most cases; they are quite effi-
cacious for the treatment of disease.

From here going northward for more than five hundred /i, I reached the
country of Vrjisthana. The country of Vrjisthana is more than two thousand
li from east to west and over one thousand /i from south to north. Its capital
city, Hubina, is over twenty /i in circuit. The native products and customs
are the same as in the country of Jaguda but the language is different. The
climate is very cold and the people are rustic and violent by nature. The king,
who is of Turkish stock, has deep faith in the Triple Gem, advocates learning,
and respects people of virtue.

316

Fascicle XII

Proceeding northeast from this country over mountains and across rivers,
I passed several tens of small frontier towns in the country of Kapisi and
reached the Balasena Range of the Great Snow Mountains. The range is
extremely lofty and precipitous, with dangerous and sloping stone steps on
a tortuous path winding among the cliffs and peaks, sometimes descending
into a deep ravine and ascending to a high precipice. Even in the height of
summer it is frozen; one has to break ice while proceeding on the way. After
a journey of three days I reached the top of the range, where the cold wind
is strong and piercing and the accumulated snow fills the valley. Whenever
travelers pass through this place they cannot halt their journey. Even a falcon
cannot fly over the range and has to alight and walk across it and then continue
its flight. When one looks down on the lower mountains they appear to be
small mounds, so this is a very high range in Jambudvipa. In the mountains
there are no trees but many rocky peaks standing closely together, resembling
a forest.

After a journey of three more days I descended from the range and reached
the country of Andarab. The country of Andarab, an old territory of the
country of Tukhara, is more than three thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city is fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit. It has no sovereign ruler and is a depend-
ency of the Turks. Mountains and hills connect with one another and the
plains are narrow and small. The climate is very cold with strong winds and
heavy snow. Crops are abundant and the land is good for growing flowers
and fruit. The people are rustic and violent by nature, without moral discipline.
They have no idea of sin or merit and are not fond of learning. They erect
only deva temples but a few of them believe in the buddha-dharma. There
are three monasteries with a few tens of monks, all of whom study the teach-
ings of the Mahasamghika school. There is one stupa built by King Asoka.

Going northwest from there, entering valleys, crossing rivers, and passing a
number of small towns on a journey of more than four hundred /i, I reached
the country of Khost. The country of Khost, an old territory of the country
of Tukhara, is less than one thousand /; in circuit and its capital city is over
ten /i in circuit. It has no sovereign ruler and is a dependency of the Turks.
There are many mountains and the plains are narrow and small. The climate
is windy and cold but there are abundant crops and plenty of flowers and

317

940a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

fruit. The people are rustic and violent by nature and the society lacks legal
institutions. There are three monasteries with few monks.

From here going northwest, crossing mountains and valleys and passing a
number of towns and villages on a journey of more than three hundred /;, I
reached the country of Huoh. The country of Huoh, an old territory of the
country of Tukhara, is more than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital
city is over twenty /i in circuit. It has no independent ruler and is under the
control of the Turks. The terrain is flat and crops are sown in the proper sea-
sons. Vegetation is luxuriant with profuse flowers and fruit. The climate is
mild and pleasant and the social customs are simple and honest. The people
are of a rash and fiery disposition and wear garments made of felt and hempen
cloth. Most of them believe in the Triple Gem; a few worship various gods.
There are over ten monasteries with several hundred monks who study and
practice the teachings of both the Mahayana and Hinayana schools. The king
is a Turk who rules over the various small countries south of the Iron Gate
and always travels from one country to another, without a permanent seat of
government.

From here going eastward I entered the Cong Ling (“Onion Range"), the
center of Jambudvipa. On the south it connects with the Great Snow Moun-
tains, on the north it reaches the Hot Sea and the Thousand Springs, on the
west it borders the country of Huoh, and on the east it adjoins the country
of Wusha. On each side there are hundreds of cliffs and ridges lining up in
a row several thousand /i in length. The deep valleys are perilous and pre-
cipitous with accumulated 1ce and snow that never melt; the cold wind is
strong and piercing. It is called the Onion Range because many fistular onions
are grown on the mountains, or it may be so called because of the onion-
green color of the cliffs.

Going east for more than one hundred /i, I reached the country of Mungan.
The country of Mungan, an old territory of the country of Tukhara, is more
than four hundred /i in circuit and its capital city is over fifteen or sixteen /i
in circuit. The native products and social customs are generally the same as
in the country of Huoh. It has no sovereign ruler and is a dependency of the
Turks.

318

Fascicle XII

To the east is the country of Alini. The country of Alini, an old territory of
the country of Tukhara, is located on both banks of the Oxus, with a circum-
ference of more than three hundred /i; its capital city is over fourteen or
fifteen /i in circuit. The native products and social customs are generally the
same as in the country of Huoh.

To the east is the country of Rahu. The country of Rahu, an old territory of
the country of Tukhara, borders the Oxus River in the north and is more than
two hundred /i in circuit; its capital city is over fourteen or fifteen /i in circuit.
The native products and social customs are generally the same as in the
country of Huoh.

From the country of Mungan going east over high ranges, across deep valleys,
and passing several cities in the plains on a journey of more than three hundred
li, I reached the country of Krisma. The country of Krisma, an old territory
of the country of Tukhara, is more than one thousand /i from east to west
and over three hundred /i from south to north. Its capital city is fifteen or six-
teen /i in circuit. The native products and social customs are generally the
same as in the country of Mungan; the only difference is that the people are
violent and malicious in disposition.

To the north is Parghar. The country of Parghar, an old territory of the country
of Tukhara, is more than one hundred /i from east to west and over three
hundred /i from south to north. Its capital city is over twenty /i in circuit.
The native products and social customs are generally the same as in the
country of Krisma.

Going east from the country of Krisma over mountains and across rivers on
a journey of more than three hundred /7, I reached the country of Himatala.
The country of Himatala, an old territory of the country of Tukhara, is more
than three thousand /i in circuit. The land has a chain of mountains and valleys
and the soil is fertile, good for growing crops and producing abundant winter
wheat. Vegetation of diverse kinds thrives and fruit of every variety 1s profuse.
The climate is bitterly cold and the people are violent and impetuous in dis-
position, not knowing what is iniquitous and what is meritorious. They are
short and ugly in their features and their ways and manners, as well as their

319

940b

940c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

garments made of felt, fur, and hempen cloth, are quite the same as those of
the Turks. Their married women wear a wooden horn about three feet high
as a headdress, with two branches in front to represent their husbands' parents,
the upper branch indicating the father and the lower one standing for the
mother. When one of the woman's parents has died the branch indicating the
deceased person is removed; when both parents have died the horn headdress
Is discarded altogether.

Formerly this was a powerful country and the royal lineage was of Sakya
stock. Most of the states west of the Cong Ling Mountains were subject to
this country. Because the land is linked with the territory of the Turks the
people of this country are influenced by Turkish customs. They have to guard
their own land against invasion and pillage so they wander about, leading a
nomadic life in different regions. There are several tens of strong cities, each
with its own ruler. The people live in domed felt tents and move from place
to place, up to the border of the country of Krisma in the west.

Going east in a valley for more than two hundred /i, I reached the country
of Badakshan. The country of Badakshan, an old territory of the country of
Tukhara, is more than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, built on
the cliff of a mountain, is six or seven /i in circuit. In this land there are moun-
tains and valleys connected in a chain and the earth is covered with sand and
stone. The soil is good for growing pulse and wheat and there is plenty of
such fruit as grapes, walnuts, pears, and crabapples. The climate is fiercely
cold and the people are staunch and violent by nature. They observe no eti-
quette and do not learn arts or crafts. Their features are ugly and vulgar and
they mostly wear felt and hempen garments. There are three or four monas-
teries with very few monks. The king is a plain and honest man who deeply
believes in the Triple Gem.

Going southeast from here in a valley for more than two hundred /; I reached
the country of Invakan. The country of Invakan, an old territory of the country
of Tukhara, is more than one thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over
ten /i in circuit. It has a chain of mountains and valleys interspersed with
narrow plains and cultivated land. The native products, climate, and the char-
acteristics of the people are the same as in the country of Badakshan but the

320

Fascicle XII

language differs slightly. The king is a tyrannical person who does not dis-
tinguish between good and evil.

From here going southeast, over mountains and across valleys for more than
three hundred /i by perilous paths in the canyons, I reached the country of
Kurana. The country of Kurana, an old territory of the country of Tukhara,
is more than two thousand /i in circuit. The land, topography, and climate
are the same as in the country of Invakan. There are no legal institutions
and the people are vulgar and violent by nature. Most do not perform mer-
itorious deeds though a few of them believe in the buddha-dharma. Their
features are ugly and unsightly and they mostly wear felt or hempen clothes.
There is a rocky mountain from which much crystal is produced. The people
break up the rocks to obtain the mineral. There are a small number of monas-
teries with few monks. The king is a plain and honest man who respects the
Triple Gem.

From here going northeast, climbing over mountains and traversing valleys
for more than five hundred /; on a hard and dangerous journey, I reached the
country of Dharmasthiti (also called Zhenkan or Humi). The country of Dhar-
masthiti, lying between two mountains, is an old territory of the country of
Tukhara. It is one thousand and five or six hundred /i from east to west and
four or five /i wide; at its narrowest point it is less than one /; wide. It winds
along the Oxus River. The land is uneven with mounds and hummocks and
the earth is covered with shifting sand and stone; the cold wind is harsh and
strong. Only wheat and pulse are planted; there are few trees and no flowers
or fruit. The country produces many good horses, which, though small in size,
are capable of undertaking hard journeys. The people have no sense of etiquette
and righteousness. They are rustic and violent by nature, with ugly and unsightly
features. Their garments are made of felt and hempen cloth and their eyes are
of a dark green color, different from those of the people of other countries.
There are more than ten monasteries with few monks.

The capital of this country is the city of Khamdadh, in which there is a
monastery built by a former king of this country. The cliffs were cut to [make
material] to fill up the gully in order to prepare the building site for the halls
and houses of the monastery. Formerly this country was not Buddhist and

321

941a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the people worshiped only heretical gods. A few hundred years ago the
Dharma began to spread in this country. The beloved son of the king of this
country was once ill; the physicians were unable to cure him so his illness
worsened. The king then went in person to a deva temple to seek the help of
the god. The priest in charge of the temple, speaking on the god's behalf,
said that the prince would surely be cured and there was no need to worry.
The king was pleased to hear this. On his way back home he met with a sra-
mana who had a remarkable demeanor. Surprised to see the mendicant's
appearance and garments, the king inquired where he had come from. This
sramana, who had realized sainthood, wished to spread the buddha-dharma
and that was why he was dressed as he was. He answered the king, saying,
“I am a disciple of the Tathagata, a bhiksu, as people say.” Feeling worried
in his mind, the king anxiously said to him, “My son is ill and in critical con-
dition.” The sramana said, “Even though the spirits of your ancestors may
be brought back to life it will be difficult to save your beloved son." The
king said, “The god has said that my son will not die, yet this sramana says
that he is near his end. How can I believe the words of such a humbug?"
When the king returned to his palace, however, he found that his son had
died. The king kept it a secret and did not send out an obituary, but went to
see the priest, who again assured him that his son would not die and his
disease would be cured. The king, enraged, had the priest bound and rebuked
him, saying, “You people live in a group doing a lot of evil and you cheat
people with your influence to gain advantages. My son has already died yet
you still say that he will be cured of his ilIness. Your fraudulence and deceit
are intolerable. The priest should be put to death and the temple demolished."
The priest was killed and the image of the god was removed and thrown into
the Oxus River. After that the king on the return journey and on the way he
again met with the sramana. He was glad to meet the mendicant, showed
him respect, and paid homage to him, saying, “Formerly, I had no sagacious
person to guide me and I set foot on the wrong path. Although it has been a
long tradition it is time now for a reformation. I hope you will condescend
to come to my residence."

At the king's invitation, the sramana accompanied him to the royal palace.
After the prince's burial the king said to him, “The human world is entan-
glemed in the cycle of rebirth. When my son was ill I asked the god about

322

Fascicle XII

his fate, and the god lied and said that my son would certainly be cured of
his illness. Then I heard your information, which proved to be true. From
this I know that your Dharma is believable. Please have pity on me and guide
this deluded disciple." He invited the sramana to make a plan for the con-
struction of a monastery according to established rules. The temple of the
old monastery was built for the arhat and since then the buddha-dharma
began to flourish in this country.

In the great temple of the monastery is a stone image of the Buddha, over
which a gilded copper canopy, adorned with various precious things, is sus-
pended. Whenever someone pays homage to the Buddha's image by circum-
ambulating it the canopy also turns along with the worshiper; if the person
stops and sands still, the canopy stops turning too. Nobody knows the cause
of this mystery. I heard some old people say that the canopy is suspended
by the willpower of a saint, or that it is operated by a mechanical device. I
noticed that the stone walls of the hall were high and strong and I could not
tell which of the stories was true.

Going north over a great mountain in this country, I reached the country of
Sikni. The country of Sikni is more than two thousand /i in circuit and its
capital city is over five or six li in circuit. Mountains and valleys connect
together and sand and stone are spread all over the wilderness. The country
produces much winter wheat but there are few other cereals. Trees are rare
and flowers and fruit are scarce. The climate is very cold and the people are
rustic and bold by custom, cruelly making slaughter and theft their profession.
They do not know about ritual and righteousness and make no distinction
between good and evil. They hold wrong ideas about future misfortune and
happiness and fear disasters in their present life. Their features are vulgar
and unsightly and they wear fur or hempen clothes. Their written language
is the same as in the country of Tukhara but they speak in a different way.

Going south over a great mountain in the country of Dharmasthiti, I reached
the country of Shangmi. The country of Shangmi is two thousand and five
or six hundred /i in circuit, with alternating mountains and valleys as well
as high and low hills. All sorts of cereals are grown; pulse and wheat are par-
ticularly abundant. It yields a large amount of grapes and produces orpiment,
which is obtained by breaking up rocks hewn from the cliffs. The mountain

323

941b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

gods are fierce and malicious and have repeatedly caused calamities. Travelers
may be safe and have a pleasant journey if they worship the gods with offer-
ings before entering the mountains; otherwise they may encounter abrupt
windstorms and hail. The climate is cold and the people are impetuous by
custom but simple and honest in disposition. They have no idea of etiquette
and righteousness. Their wisdom and resourcefulness are limited and their
crafts are shallow and superficial. Their written language is the same as that
of the country of Tukhara but they speak in a different way. They mostly
wear felt and hempen clothes. The king is of Sakya stock and respects the
buddha-dharma; the people following his edification are all pure Buddhists.
There are two monasteries with very few monks.

Going over mountains and across valleys, through dangerous regions in
the northeast part of the country for more than seven hundred /i, I reached
the Pamir Valley, which is more than one thousand /i from east to west and
over one hundred /i from south to north; at its narrowest point it is less than
ten /i wide. It is situated between two snowy mountains and a fierce and
strong cold wind blows day and night. Snow falls in spring and summer. The
soil is saline and has much gravel; it is uncultivable and so there are scarcely
any plants. It is an empty and dreary place without human habitation.

In the Pamir Valley there is a great dragon lake that 1s more than three
hundred /i from east to west and over fifty /i from south to north. Lying among
the ranges of the Cong Ling Mountains in the center of Jambudvipa, this
lake is in the highest position. The water is pure and clear, of unfathomable
depth, and bluish-black in color with a very sweet and refreshing taste. In
the water dwell sharks, hornless dragons, fish, normal dragons, soft-shelled
turtles, alligators, and tortoises; floating on the water's surface are mandarin
ducks, swans, wild geese, and bustards. The huge eggs laid by various birds
are left in the wilds among the marshes or on sandy islets.

The lake has a large outlet on the west side and water flows westward to
the eastern boundary of the country of Dharmasthiti, where it joins the Oxus
River and flows west. All streams on the right side of this point flow to the
west. On the east of the lake, another large stream flows northeast to the
western boundary of the country of Kasha, where it joins the Sita River and
flows east. All streams on the left side of this point flow to the east. Across

324

Fascicle XII

a mountain in the south of the Pamir Valley is the country of Balüra, where
much gold and silver are produced; the gold is of a fiery color.

From this valley going southeast for more than five hundred /i, climbing over
mountains by dangerous paths that are unihabitated all along the way and
full of ice and snow, I reached the country of Kabhanda. The country of Kab-
handa is more than two thousand /i in circuit and its capital city, founded on
a large rocky ridge with the Sita River at its back, is over twenty /i in circuit.
The mountains and ridges of the country connect together and the valleys
and plains are small and narrow. There are few varieties of cereals but pulse
and wheat are abundant. Trees are rare and flowers and fruit are scarce. The
plains and swamps lie in waste and the cities and towns are desolate. The
people have no idea of etiquette and righteousness by custom and seldom
learn crafts. They are rustic and violent by nature but are valiant and brave
as well. Their features are ugly and unsightly and they wear felt and hempen
clothes. Their writing and spoken language are generally the same as in the
country of Kasha. They have pure faith, however, and respect the buddha-
dharma. There are over ten monasteries with more than five hundred monks,
who study the Hinayana teachings of the Sarvastivada school. The present
king is a simple and honest man who venerates the buddha-dharma. He has
a composed and refined demeanor and is devoted to learning. Many years
have elapsed since the establishment of the country. The king professed himself
a descendant of Cinadevagotra (Chinese, *Sun-god Stock”; see below).

Formerly the country was a wild valley in the ranges of the Cong Ling
Mountains. In the past a Persian king once obtained a Chinese lady for his
queen. As the bride was being taken to Persia she passed this place at a time
when a rebellion was taking place. The road leading from east to west was
blocked so the king’s bride was lodged on an isolated peak, so steep and
lofty that ladders had to be used for going up and down. Guards were posted
around the peak to keep watch day and night. After three months the uprising
was quelled but when the bride was about to resume the journey she was
found to be pregnant. The envoy who escorted her was terror-stricken and
said to his followers, “The king ordered us to bring his bride back but we
met with the revolt and remained in a precarious situation in the wilds, not
knowing what would befall us. Thanks to the virtuous influence of our king,

325

941c

942a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

the insurgency has been put down. Now at this moment of resuming our
return journey, the king's bride is found to be with child. I am worried about
the situation and do not know where I will die. We should find the chief
culprit so that he can be put to death later." They made a clamorous interro-
gation but could not find out the true criminal. At that moment the bride's
maidservant told the envoy, *Do not condemn anyone. Tthe pregnancy] is
due to her union with a god. Every day at noon a man emerged from the disc
of the sun and came to this place on horseback." The envoy said, “If that 15
so, how can we free ourselves of the blame? If we go back we shall be put
to death, but if we stay here troops will be sent to attack us. What shall we
do in such an awkward predicament?" They all said, “This is not a trivial
matter. Who would go willingly to suffer the punishment of death? We sgould
instead pass our days abroad."

So they built a palace and other houses on the top of a rocky peak, more
than three hundred paces in circuit. They constructed a city wall around the
palace and made the Chinese lady their queen. Officials were appointed and
a legal system was established. When the time was came she gave birth to a
son, who grew up into a handsome lad. He received the title of king and his
mother acted as regent. He could fly about in the air and had control over the
wind and clouds. His prestige and virtue spread far and his fame and edification
extended to a great distance. All the neighboring regions and countries became
his vassal states. When at length this king died at an old age his corpse was
entombed in a cave in the mountains over one hundred /i southeast of the cap-
ital. The corpse has become a mummy and is still intact, resembling an ema-
ciated figure that seems to be fast asleep. Its garments are changed from time
to time and sweet flowers are always placed before it by his descendants from
generation to generation up to the present time. Because their maternal ancestor
was a Chinese lady and on the paternal side he was the sun god, they claimed
to be descendants of Chinese-sun-god stock. The facial features of the members
of the royal clan are similar to those of Chinese people and they wear square
caps, but they dress in the attire of the Hu people. Their offspring degenerated
and suffered oppression from powerful countries.

When King Asoka prospered in the world he built a stupa in the palace,
and the king [of this country] went to live in the northeast corner of the palace.
He converted his old palace into a monastery for the venerable sastra master

326

Fascicle XII

Kumaralata. The terraces and pavilions were lofty and spacious and solemn
images of the Buddha were installed in them. The venerable monk, a native
of the country of Taksasila, was intelligent since childhood and renounced
the world at an early age to engage in the study of the scriptures and fix his
mind on the abstruse doctrines. Every day he recited thirty-two thousand
words and wrote them down as well. Thus he was prominent in learning
among contemporary scholars and enjoyed a high reputation in his time. He
upheld the right Dharma and crushed erroneous views; in his brilliant discus-
sions there was no question he could not answer. He was greatly esteemed
in all of the five parts of India. His writings amounted to several tens of books,
all of which were popular works studied by all scholars. He was the founder
of the Sautrantika school. In his time, ASvaghosa in the east, Deva in the south,
Nagarjuna in the west, and Kumaralata in the north were called the Four Bril-
liant Suns. Hearing of this venerable monk's great fame, the king of this
country mobilized his troops, attacked the country of Taksasila, and captured
him. It was out of respect for him that this monastery was constructed.

More than three hundred /i away to the southeast of the capital is a great
rocky cliff with two caves. In each cave an arhat entered the samadhi of com-
plete extinction, sitting erect and immovable in the shape of an emaciated
man, and their skin and skeletons are undecayed. They have been there for
more than seven hundred years. Their hair continues to grow so the monks
shave their hair and change their garments once a year.

From the great cliff going northeast over ranges by a dangerous path for
more than two hundred /i, I reached Punyasala (“Charity House"), located
at the center of a depression about one hundred qing in area (1 qing = 6.67
hectares). It is surrounded by four mountains of the eastern ridges of the
Cong Ling Mountains. Snow accumulates in winter as well as in the summer
season and the cold wind blows hard and strong. The land is of saline soil
and does not grow crops. There are no trees, only short grasses. Even in the
hot season snowstorms are likely to occur. On entering this region travelers
may be immediately enshrouded by clouds and mist. This is a dangerous
place, dreaded by traveling merchants. I heard some old people say that once
in the past a large group of merchants, with several thousand camels laden
with goods to gain profit, encountered a snowstorm at this place and all the
people and animals lost their lives. At that time a great arhat in the country

327

942b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of Kabhanda saw the catastrophe from a distance. Having pity on the merchants
caught in danger, he intended to rescue them through his supernatural power
but when he arrived at the spot the merchants were already dead. So he collected
the jewels and valuables and all their property and built a house in which he
stored various commodities. He also purchased a piece of land in the neighboring
country to make a settlement in the frontier city and hired people to live there
to look after travelers. At present all wayfarers and merchants are provided
with daily necessaries at this place.

From here going eastward down the eastern ridges of the Cong Ling Moun-
tains, climbing over perilous ranges and across deep valleys, through dan-
gerous paths in the gorges, and braving continuous wind and snow, I proceeded
for more than eight hundred /i and emerged from the Cong Ling range,
arriving in the country of Wusha. The country of Wusha is more than one
thousand /i in circuit and its capital city is over ten /i in circuit. It borders on
the Sita River in the south and the land is fertile, producing abundant crops.
The trees are luxuriant with plenty of flowers and fruit. It yields much jade
of different hues, such as white, jet[-black], and sapphire. The climate is mild
with good weather favorable for the growth of crops. The people lack etiquette
and righteousness and are strong-willed and rustic in disposition; they are
deceitful and have little sense of shame. Their written and spoken language
are somewhat similar to those of the country of Kasha. Their features are
ugly and unsightly and their clothes are made of fur and hemp. They believe
in and respect the buddha-dharma, however. There are some ten monasteries
with less than a thousand monks, who study the Hinayana teachings of the
Sarvastivada school. The royal lineage has been extinct for several hundred
year so this country has no sovereign ruler and is subject to the country of
Kabhanda.

Going westward from the capital for more than two hundred /i, I reached
a great mountain where the mists of the mountain rises high and turns into
clouds upon touching the rocks. The precipices are lofty and steep, as if they
were broken, and they seemed likely to collapse at any moment. The stupa
built at the summit affords a splendid sight. I heard some local people say
that several hundred years ago a cliff of the mountain collapsed and exposed
a bhiksu sitting with closed eyes behind the rocks. He was tall in stature but

328

Fascicle XII

appeared to be emaciated. His beard and hair covered his face and shoulders.
A hunter saw him and reported the case to the king. The king came in person
to see and worship the bhiksu, and the inhabitants and officials in the capital
also came of their own accord to vie with one another in offering incense
and flowers. The king asked, “Who is this man, so tall in stature?" A bhiksu
said in reply, “This man with long beard and hair, clad in religious robes, is
an arhat absorbed in the samadhi of mental extinction. One who is absorbed
in such a samadhi has prelimited the duration of the trance. He may be aroused
by the sound of a musical instrument or by the shining of sunlight; with such
signals he may be awakened from the abstract meditation. If there is no dis-
turbance he will remain motionless. The power of samadhi sustains his body
from decaying but when he has come out of the samadhi his physical body,
which is composed of food, may become feeble and fragile. We should infuse
him with ghee to nurture his body before we awaken him from the mental
concentration." The king said, “Let it be so!”

A musical instrument was then struck. As soon as the instrument was
sounded the arhat awakened and, after looking around for awhile, he said,
“Who are you, of such base appearance and wearing religious robes?" The
monk said, “I am a bhiksu.” The arhat said, “Where is my teacher, Kasyapa
Tathagata?" The monk said, *He entered mahanirvana a long time ago."
Hearing this, the arhat closed his eyes, disappointed. He then asked, “Has
Sakyamuni Tathagata come into the world yet?” The monk said in reply, “Не
has passed away after having been born into the world to guide living beings."
When the arhat had heard this information he lowered his head. After a long
while he ascended into the air and cremated himself with fire produced
through his supernatural power, and his ashes dropped to the ground. The
king collected them and built a stupa for them.

Going northward from here for more than five hundred /i over mountains
and through deserts and wilderness, I reached the country of Kasha (formerly
called Shule, the name of the capital city. To be correct, it should be called
Srikritati, which indicates that the name Shule [for the country] is apparently
wrong). The country of Kasha is more than five thousand /i in circuit, consisting
mostly of desert with little cultivable land. Crops are abundant and there are
plenty of flowers and fruit. It produces fine felt and hemp, as well as exquisitely

329

942c

943a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

woven cotton cloth and woolen carpets. The climate is mild and the weather
changes according to the seasons. The people are rustic and violent by nature
and deceitful by custom. They have little sense of etiquette and righteousness
and their learning is superficial. It is their custom to compress the heads of
their newborn babies into a flat shape. They are vulgar and coarse in appearance,
tattoo their bodies, and have green eyes. Their written language evolved after
the fashion ofthe language of India. Although there are deletions and aberrations,
the linguistic structure and function are mainly preserved. The diction and
accent of their dialect differ from those of other countries. They piously believe
in the buddha-dharma and diligently perform meritorious deeds. There are sev-
eral hundred monasteries with over ten thousand monks who study the Sarvas-
tivada school of the Hinayana teachings. The monks do not delve into the doc-
trines but they can recite by heart most of the texts. Therefore many of them
are reciters of the Tripitaka and the Mahavibhasa-sastra.

From here going southeast for more than five hundred /i, crossing the Sita
River and a great sandy range, I reached the country of Cukuka (formerly
called Juqu). The country of Cukuka is more than one thousand /i in circuit
and its capital city, which is over ten li in circuit, is in an impregnable position
with a large number of registered inhabitants. There is a chain of mountains
and hillocks covered with stone and gravel. Two rivers wind through the country
so the land is good for cultivation. Such fruit as grapes, pears, and crabapples
are abundant. The seasonal wind is cold. The people are rude and deceitful by
custom and robbery is committed openly. Their writing is similar to that of
Gostana (see below) but the spoken language is different. They have little sense
of etiquette and righteousness and their learning is superficial, but they piously
believe in the Triple Gem and are fond of performing meritorious deeds. There
are several tens of monasteries, most of which are in ruins. The monks, about
a hundred in number, study Mahayana teachings.

In the southern part of this country there is a great mountain with lofty
peaks and ranges standing one behind the other. The grass and trees are cold-
resistant and they are always the same, whether in spring or autumn. The
streams in the gullies flow rapidly in all directions. On the cliffs there are
caves and rock cells scattered all over the precipices. Many Indians who
achieved sainthood came here from a great distance through their supernatural

330

Fascicle XII

power of levitation and settled in this place. Many of the arhats died here,
so a large number of stupas have been built in the mountain. There are still
three arhats living in the caves, absorbed in the samadhi of mental extinction.
They look emaciated but their beards and hair continue to grow, so the monks
go to shave them regularly. A large number of Mahayana scriptures in par-
ticular are stored in this country; of all the places where Buddhism has pre-
vailed none can surpass this country in its collection of scriptures. Books
consisting of a hundred thousand stanzas each amount to more than ten titles,
and those of fewer stanzas are widely circulated indeed.

Going eastward from there for more than eight hundred /i over ranges and
across valleys, I reached the country of Gostana (this name is the elegant form
of the local dialect, meaning "earth-nipple." In the vulgar language it is called
Huanna, while the Huns call it Yudun. In the other Hu language it is designated
as Qidan, and in India it is named Qudan. Its old form, Yutian, is incorrect).
The country of Gostana is more than four thousand /i in circuit and more than
half the country is desert. There is only a limited area of cultivable land, which
yields cereals and diverse kinds of fruit. The country produces woolen carpets
and fine felt and the people are skillful in spinning and weaving silk. It also
yields white and black jade. The climate is pleasant but there are dust whirls.
The people have a sense of etiquette and righteousness and are genial and
polite in disposition. They are fond of learning the classics and the arts and
they are conversant with various crafts. The common people are wealthy and
happy and the registered families live in peace and security. The state promotes
music and the people love singing and dancing. A few of them wear woolen,
hempen, felt, or fur clothes, but the majority use silk and white cotton for
their clothing. They are graceful in deportment and well disciplined in behavior.
Their system of writing follows that of India, with slight alterations and some
reforms; their spoken language differs from that of other countries. They
esteem the buddha-dharma and there are over a hundred monasteries with
more than five thousand monks who mostly study Mahayana teachings. The
king is a very brave man and holds the buddha-dharma in high esteem. He
claims to be a descendant of the deity Vaisravana.

In the past the deity Vai$ravana stayed here when this country was unin-
habited. After King Asoka’s prince had his eyes gouged out in the country

331

943b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

of Taksasila, the king angrily reproached his ministers and exiled some of
the powerful and influential families to settle in the desert valleys to the north
of the Snow Mountains. In the course of moving from place to place in search
of pasture, the exiled people came to the western region of this country and
elected their leader as king. Meanwhile, one of the sons of the emperor of a
land in the east was condemned to banishment and went to live in the eastern
region of this country. At the instigation of his followers he made himself
king. For a long time the two kings were not in contact with one another.
Once, when both men were out hunting, they met in the wilderness and each
inquired of the other about his ancestral lineage. They then had a dispute
over the question of who was superior in rank. The argument became more
heated and they were soon on the brink of resorting to force. Someone advised
them, “Why should we fight a decisive battl while out hunting, when we
have not fully mobilized our troops? We should go back to arrange our fighters
in battle array and then make an appointment to meet again.” So the two
kings returned to their respective countries, had their soldiers drill and practice
the arts of war, and boosted their morale. On the appointed day the two armies
met on the battleground, with colors flying and drums beating, and the fol-
lowing day they engaged. The lord from the west was defeated and while
attempting to retreat he was decapitated. The lord from the east comforted
and assembled the inhabitants of the defeated country on his victorious march.
He moved his capital to the central part of the country and planned to build
city walls. He was concerned about not knowing where the ground was clay
and feared that his plan would not succeed, so he made an announcement to
invite learned soil scientists from far and near. An ash-smearing ascetic car-
rying a big calabash of water approached to recommend himself to the king,
saying, “I know the structure of soil.” He dripped the water to mark the
ground in a roundabout way twice and then departed and disappeared. The
foundations of the city walls were laid down along the water marks and the
city became the seat of government. The present king has made his capital
in this city. Although it is not in a high and invulnerable position it is strong
and difficult for attackers to capture. Since ancient times no one has ever
occupied it in a war.

By the time the king had moved his capital to the newly built city for the
establishment of his government and the settlement of his people, he was

332

Fascicle XII

already getting old, after many achievements and exploits. He was childless
and feared that his ancestral line would die out, so he went to the place of
the deity Vaisravana to pray for a son and a baby burst out from the forehead
of the image of the deity. The king carried the baby home, to the delight of
the whole country. The baby refused to drink milk, however, and the king
feared that it might not live long. So he went again to the temple to seek
nourishment for the baby. The earth in front of the deity's image suddenly
bulged into the shape of a nipple, from which the baby drew milk [and he
received nourishment in this way] until he grew up. He became an unprece-
dentedly brave and brilliant man whose influence spread far and he renovated
the temple in honor of his forefather. Since then the royal lineage has continued
from generation to generation without cessation. That is why the temple is
full of jewels and gems and ceremonies of worship and sacrifice are regularly
offered to the deity without neglect. Because their ancestor was nursed with
milk from an earth-nipple, the people named their country after it.

About ten /i to the south of the royal city is a great monastery built by a
previous king of this country for the arhat Vairocana (Universal Shining"
in Chinese). Formerly, when the buddha-dharma had not yet spread to this
country, the arhat came here and stayed in the wood, sitting in meditation.
Someone saw him and was amazed by his appearance and garments. He
reported the matter to the king, who came in person to see the arhat and said,
“Who are you, staying alone in the solitary wood?" The arhat said, “I am a
disciple of the Tathagata and I live alone, practicing meditation. O King, you
should perform meritorious deeds to propagate the Buddha's teachings and
build a monastery for the assembly of monks." The king said, “What are the
virtues of the Tathagata and what divine powers does he possess that made
you dwell like a bird in the wood and practice his teachings so assiduously?"
The arhat said in reply, *The Tathagata has compassion for all creatures of
the four kinds of birth and guides all living beings of the three realms, either
overtly or covertly, in the states of existence or extinction. Those who follow
his Dharma will become free of birth and death, while those who do not
believe in it will be entangled in the net of passion." The king said, "Truly,
as you have said, this matter is beyond verbal discussion. Since he is a great
saint he may as well appear in physical form so that I might see him. Once
I have seen him I will build a monastery, believe in him as my refuge, and

333

943c

944a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

propagate his teachings." The arhat said, “After you have completed the con-
struction of a monastery you will receive his spiritual response." Hopeful,
the king agreed to build the monastery. When the construction was completed
people from far and near assembled to celebrate the occasion as a religious
function, but they lacked the instrument to be sounded for summoning the
monks. The king said to the arhat, “Now the monastery is completed but
where is the Buddha?" The arhat said, “Work with utmost sincerity; the holy
evidence is not far off." The king then prayed and worshiped and suddenly
an image of the Buddha descended from the air and handed an instrument
to him. Thereafter the king piously believed in the Buddha and propagated
his teachings.

More than twenty /i to the southwest of the royal city is Go$rnga
(^Cowhorn") Mountain, with two high eaks surrounded by precipitous cliffs.
In the valley a monastery was constructed, in which the Buddha's image
often emitted a bright light. In the past the Tathagata once came here and
briefly preached the essence of the Dharma to human and heavenly beings.
He prophesied that a country would be founded here and that the people
would revere his teachings and follow Mahayana tenets. Amid the rocks of
Cowhorn Mountain there is a large cave in which an arhat is absorbed in the
meditation of mental extinction, waiting for the advent of Maitreya Buddha.
For several hundred years offerings have been made to him without cease.
Recently the rocks collapsed and blocked the entrance to the cave. The king
sent his soldiers to clear away the fallen stones but a swarm of black wasps
flew out to sting them. Thus up to now the entrance has not been reopened.

About ten /i to the southwest of the royal city is Dirghabhavana Monastery,
in which there is a standing image of the Buddha, made of ramie and lacquer,
that came by itself to this place from the country of Kuci. A cabinet minister
of this country was once banished to live in Kuci and while he was in exile
he always worshiped this image. After he was recalled to his own country
he continued to recall and venerate the image from afar. One night the image
suddenly came to him. The man offered his residence for the construction
of this monastery.

Going westward from the royal city for more than three hundred /i, I
reached the city of Bhagya. In this city is an image of the seated Buddha,
about seven feet in height, with consummate features, quiet and dignified,

334

Fascicle XII

and with a precious crown on its head that occasionally emits a bright light.
I heard the local people say that this image was originally in the country of
Kasmira and had been transported to its present location. In the past a sra-
manera, the disciple of an arhat, once desired to eat some fermented rice
cake when he was on his deathbed. The arhat saw with his supernatural power
of clairvoyance that this kind of cake was obtainable in the country of Gostana,
so he went there through his faculty of divine feet and obtained some of the
cake for his disciple. Having eaten the cake, the sramanera wished to be
reborn in that country after death. His wish was actually fulfilled and he was
reborn as a prince of [Gostana]. After his succession to the throne his prestige
spread far and near., and later he crossed the Snow Mountains to invade the
country of Kasmira. The king of Kasmira had concentrated his troops to
resist the invaders at the frontier but the arhat exhorted him, “There is no
need to resort to force. I can repulse them.” The arhat then went to speak on
the essence of various Dharmas to the king of Gostana. At first the king would
not listen to him and still wanted to send his army to the battleground. The
arhat then produced the robe that the king had worn in his previous life as
the sramanera. At the sight of the robe the king gained the supernatural
faculty of remembering past events. He apologized to the king of Kasmira
and withdrew his troops after reconciliation. He also brought back with his
army the Buddha's image that he had worshiped when he was a sramanera
in his former life. When the image was brought to this place it refused to be
moved any further, and so a monastery was built to enshrine the image where
it stood. Monks were invited to live in the monastery and the king's precious
crown was placed on head of the image. The present crown on the image's
head is the one that was offered by the previous king.

Along the main path, in a great desert one hundred and fifty or sixty /i to
the west of the royal city, are mounds that are actually heaps of earth dug
out by rats from their holes. I heard the local people say that the rats in the
desert were as large as hedgehogs, that the ones with golden or silvery hair
were the chiefs, and that each time they came out of their holes the other rats
always followed them as attendants. The Hun people once led hundreds of
thousands of troops to attack the frontier [of Gostana] and they were stationed
beside the rat mounds. At that time the king of Gostana had only a few tens
of thousands of soldiers under his command and he feared that his army was

335

944b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

not strong enough to resist the enemy. He always knew that the rats in the
desert were marvelous animals but he did not regard them as divine beings.
When the invaders arrived both the monarch and his subjects were greatly
surprised and did not know how to deal with the situation. As a temporary
expedient they tried conducting a sacrificial ceremony, praying to the rats in
the hope that they might help strengthen the army. That night the king of
Gostana dreamed that a giant rat said to him, “I wish to assist you and I hope
you will get your men ready for battle at an early hour. If you engage the
enemy tomorrow you will certainly win the day." Knowing that he had spir-
itual assistance, the king of Gostana mobilized his troops and ordered them
to launch a surprise attack before dawn. The Hun invaders were frightened
when they heard of this. They rushed to put on their armor and mount the
horses and chariots, but they found that the saddles and equipment, the strings
of their bows and ties for the armor, and all such belts and cords had been
gnawed through by the rats. The defenders then arrived suddely and the Hun
people were overcome and suffered capture and massacre; the commanders
were killed and the soldiers taken prisoner. The Hun people, thinking that
their opponents had the help of divine beings, were awestruck. Out of gratitude
toward the rats the king of Gostana built a temple to offer sacrifices to them,
and this tradition has been carried down from generation to generation with
a deep and special feeling of wonderment. From the monarch on down to
common citizens, everyone performed sacrificial ceremonies to gain blessed-
ness. Whenever they passed by the rat holes they alighted from their horses
and carriages to worship the rats and offer clothing, bows, and arrows or fra-
grant flowers and delicious food to them, so as to pray for happiness. Because
they did so with sincerity they gained benefit in most cases. If no sacrifice
was offered one might meet with calamity.

Five or six /i to the west of the royal city is Samajfia Monastery, in which
there is a stupa more than a hundred feet high that shows frequent spiritual
signs and occasionally emits a divine light. In the past an arhat once came
from a distance and stayed in the wood, issuing a bright light through his
supernatural power. From a storied pavilion the king saw the light shining
brightly in the wood at night and asked his attendants about it, and they all
said, “A sramana has come from a distance and is now sitting in the wood,
manifesting his supernatural powers." The king then ordered his driver to

336

Fascicle XII

prepare his carriage and went in person to see the monk. When he saw the
sage he cherished a feeling of respect for him and, in admiration of the monk's
demeanor, the king invited him to come to the palace. The sramana said,
"Everything has its own appropriate position and each person has his particular
inclination. A secluded wood with marshes and streams is the place I appreciate,
while lofty halls and grand mansions are not what I should accept." The king
respected him all the more and treated him with even greater honor. A
monastery was built with a stupa, and the sramana was invited to stay there.

Before long, to his great delight the king obtained several hundred grains
of relic bones through his profound devotion. He regretted that the relics, as
a spiritual response, had come a bit too late to have been enshrined in the
stupa, which would consequently have become a superior holy site. He went
to the monastery and told his idea to the monks. The arhat said, “O King, do
not worry! I can place the relics under the stupa for you. You should put the
relics in golden, silver, copper, iron, and stone cases, one by one." The king
ordered craftsmen to make the required cases and they completed the task
in a few days' time. The cases were sent to the monastery in precious carriages
and hundreds of heralds, attendants, and officials from the palace escorted
the relics, while tens of thousands of people watched the procession. The
arhat lifted up the stupa with his right hand and placed it in his palm, saying
to the king, *You may place the relics now." Then the ground was dug up
for the cases and when this had been done, the stupa was replaced on the site
without any damage or slanting. Those who witnessed the event said in admi-
ration that they had never before seen such a sight; their faith in the Buddha
became even more sincere and their minds of respecting the Dharma more
steadfast.

The king said to his group of officials, “I have heard that the Buddha’s
power is inconceivable and his divine faculties are unfathomable. He can
appear in hundreds of myriads of bodies simultaneously and take birth either
in the human world or in heaven. He can lift up the world in his palm without
making living beings feel any agitation. He expounded the nature of the
Dharma in normal language to enable all creatures to reach enlightenment
in different ways, according to their varying capacities. His divine power is
incomparable and his wisdom is beyond description. Although his corporeal
form has vanished his teachings have been handed down, so that we can

337

944c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

enjoy the peace of his doctrine, live under the influence of his virtue, taste
the flavor of the Way, and admire his characteristic way of life. Owing to his
blessing, we have now obtained these holy relics. Do your utmost, all of you,
to pay deep respect to the Buddha. You will then understand that the buddha-
dharma is abstruse and profound."

Five or six /i to the southeast of the royal city is Maza Monastery, which
was established by a concubine of a former king of this country. In the past
neither the mulberry tree or silkworms were known in this country. Hearing
that a certain country in the east had mulberry trees and silkworms, [the king]
dispatched a messenger to seek for them, but the monarch of the eastern
country kept them hidden and would not grant the request. He gave orders
to the frontier guards to prevent mulberry seeds or silkworms from being
smuggled out of the country. The king of Gostana then humbly proposed to
enter into a matrimonial alliance with the eastern country. The king of the
eastern country had ambitions to exert his influence over distant lands through
mollification, so he readily agreed to the proposal. The king of Gostana
appointed an envoy to collect the bride and said to him, “Tell the daughter
of the monarch of the eastern country that we have no silk thread, nor do we
have we mulberry trees or silkworms, in our country. Ask her to bring some
seeds with her [so that silk may be produced] to make garments for her."
Hearing this, the daughter of the monarch secretly obtained some mulberry
seeds and silkworms, which she hid inside the cloth of her hat. When she
arrived at the frontier the guards searched all her belongings but they dared
not inspect her hat. In this manner she entered the country of Gostana and
lodged at the place where Maza Monastery now stands. She was then taken
to the royal palace with proper rites and ceremony and the mulberry seeds
and silkworms were kept at the palace. In early spring the mulberry seeds
were planted, and in the month of breeding silkworms the leaves of the mul-
berry trees were plucked to feed them. In the early stages [the silkworms]
were also fed with leaves of miscellaneous trees. From then on the mulberry
trees thrived, their luxuriant foliage casting shadows in patches. The king's
concubine made an inscription on a stone tablet to lay down a rule forbidding
people from harming the silkworms. Only when the silk moths had all flown
away could the cocoons be reeled; the gods would not protect those who
dared infringe this rule. This monastery was built in memory of the first

338

Fascicle XII

group of silkworms. There are several withered mulberry trees, said to be
the first mulberries planted there. Silkworms are not killed in this country
and if anyone stealthily reels silk [from cocoons with larvae inside] he will
reap a poor harvest in sericulture the following year.

More than one hundred /i to the southeast of the [royal] city 15 a large
river flowing northwest, which the people use for irrigation. At one time it
dried up, to the great surprise of the king. He rode in his carriage to inquire
of an arhat monk, saying, “The water of the large river is usually drawn and
used by the people; what is the fault that has caused it to dry up? Have I been
unjust in managing state affairs, have my virtuous deeds not extended to all?
If not, then why is the punishment from above so severe?" The arhat said,
*Your Majesty rules the country in peace and good order. The drying up of
the river is caused by the dragon [in the river]. It befits Your Majesty to imme-
diately offer sacrifice and say prayers to him, and then the lost advantages
may be recovered." The king returned to his palace and performed a sacrificial
ceremony for the dragon in the river. Suddenly a woman came over the waves
and said to the king, “My husband has been dead for a long time and I am
unable to carry out your order. That is why the river has dried up and the
farmers have lost the advantage of irrigation. If you will select one of your
noble ministers to be my husband the river's waters will flow as usual." The
king said, “Please do as you wish." The dragon [woman] looked at the min-
isters and was delighted with one of them. After returning to the palace the
king said to his ministers, “My ministers are the pillars of the state and agri-
culture is the source of the food that sustains our lives. If I lose my ministers
the state will be endangered, but without food all of us will die. What shall
I choose, the endangerment of the state or death?" The minister [chosen by
the dragon woman] arose from his seat and kneeled, saying in reply, “I am
an incompetent person who is unworthy of my important position, and I have
always thought of dedicating myself to the service of my country but have
not yet had the chance. Now, having been selected [to take up the appoint-
ment], how could I dare refuse to bear this important responsibility? If it is
for the benefit of the masses of people, there is no need to be reluctant about
sending away a minister. A minister is merely an assistant of the state, while
the people are the foundation of the country. I hope Your Majesty will hesitate
no more. I would be fortunate if a monastery can be constructed as a good

339

945a

945b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

deed done on my behalf.” The king consented to his request and the work
was completed in no time.

The minister then asked permission to go to the dragon's palace at an
early date. All the officials and common people in the whole country held
farewell banquets in his honor, accompanied by the performance of music.
The minister, dressed in white and riding a white horse, bade farewell to the
king and expressed thanks to his countrymen before he rode into the river.
The horse walked on the surface of the water without sinking. When it came
to midstream the minister waved his whip to slice the water and made an
opening, through which he dropped into the river. After a short while the
white horse floated out of the river, carrying a sandalwood drum on its back
along with a letter, which said in brief, “Your Majesty did not despise me as
a humble person and gave me the chance to be selected by the goddess. I
hope you will perform more meritorious deeds for the benefit of your country
and people. The big drum is to be hung to the southeast of the city. Before
the approach of invaders it will sound by itself to give warning." Since then
water has flowed in the river and the people have made use of it up to now.
After such a the long lapse of time the original dragon drum is no longer in
existence. At the place where it was hung another drum has been put as a
substitute. The monastery beside the pond is deserted and in ruins, and there
are no monks living there.

More than three hundred / to the east of the royal city is a large expanse
of marshland several tens of qing in area, the earth of which is reddish-black
in color; it supports no vegetation whatsoever. I heard some old people say
that this was the place where the army [of this country] was defeated. In the
past a country in the east once raised a million troops to make an invasion
to the west. At that time the king of Gostana prepared an army several lakhs
strong to resist the enemy from the east. The two armies met at this place
and engaged in battle and the soldiers of the west were defeated by the troops
from the east. The latter, advancing in the flush of victory, slaughtered people
cruelly, captured the king [of Gostana], killed his generals, and massacred
the soldiers, sparing not a single one. The ground was stained with blood
and the traces are still visible.

Going eastward for more than thirty /i from the battleground, I reached
the city of Bhima, in which there is a standing image of the Buddha carved

340

Fascicle XII

out of sandalwood, over twenty feet high, which has shown spiritual responses
many times and often emits a bright light. If someone who suffers from a
painful ailment pastes a piece of gold foil on the image at the part that corre-
sponds to where his ailment is, he may be instantly relieved of the pain. If
someone says prayers to the image with earnest devotion their wishes will be
fulfilled in most cases. I heard the local people say that this image was made
by King Udayana of the country of Kausambi when the Buddha was living
in the world. After the Buddha's demise the image came through the air from
that country to the city of Araurak in the north of this country [of Gostana].

The inhabitants of this city were living in happy and wealthy conditions
and were deeply attached to erroneous views so when the image first came
to the city they did not treasure or respect it. Even though they heard that it
had come by itself they merely regarded this as a miracle and did not venerate
the image as an unusual object of worship. An arhat later came to worship
this image and the people, amazed at his strange garb, hurriedly went to
report this to the king, who then ordered them to throw sand and earth on
the strange person. The arhat was covered with sand and earth and no food
was provided to him. At that time a man who always worshiped the image
with veneration could not bear to see the arhat being starved and secretly
offered him food. When the arhat was about to leave he told the man, *Seven
days from now a sandstorm will cover the entire city and no one will remain
alive. You should know this and prepare an esacpe for yourself. This disaster
will occur because the people cast sand and earth on me.” After saying this
the arhat departed and immediately disappeared.

That man entered the city and warned his relatives and friends, but those
who heard the information sneered at him. On the following day a big gale
swiftly arose and blew away the filthy dust, while various kinds of gems and
precious substances rained down all over the roads and thoroughfares. The
people then berated their informant all the more, but the man knew that
disaster was a certainty and secretly excavated a tunnel leading out of the
city and made it into a cellar. After midnight on the seventh day sand and
earth rained from the air and filled up the city. The man escaped through the
tunnel and went east to this country [of Gostana], where he stayed in the city
of Bhima. No sooner had he arrived than the image also came to that place,
where it was worshiped with offerings and no one dared remove it. I heard

341

945c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

a prophet say that by the end of Sakyamuni’s Dharma the image will enter
the dragon's palace.

The city of Araurak has now become a big mound. Kings and powerful
persons of many countries have attempted to excavate the precious treasure,
but each time they have come to the side of the mound a strong, violent gale
has arisen, raising a shroud of dust and clouds in which they lose their way.

From the east of the valley of Bhima I entered a desert. After going for
more than two hundred /7, I reached the city of Nina, which is three or four
li in circuit, situated in a vast marsh. The marsh is hot and humid and it is
difficult to pass through it. This region is overgrown with reeds and wild
grass and has no tracks or paths. Because this 1s the only passageway leading
to the city travelers have to go leave and depart by this way. Gostana made
this city a frontier station in its eastern region. Going east from there I entered
the Great Desert, in which the shifting sand is piled up and scatters with the
wind. No trace of wayfarers can remain visible on the sand and travelers
often lose their way in the vast wilderness and do not know which direction
to go, so they have collected the skeletons of the dead to serve as landmarks.
Water and pasture are scarce in the desert and the wind is hot; whenever the
hot wind blows people and animals fall into a swoon and become ill. The
sound of singing and shouting, or wailing and crying, is sometimes heard
but when one looks around to locate the source of the sound no one can tell
where it comes from. This phenomenon often causes death, as it is mischief
wrought by ghosts and devils.

Going further for more than four hundred /7, I reached the old country of
Tukhara, which has been deserted for a long time; all the cities are in ruins.
From here proceeding to the east for more than six hundred /; I reached the
old country of Calmadana, the land of Jumo. The lofty city walls are still
there but there is no trace of human habitation. Continuing my journey toward
the northeast for more than one thousand /i, I reached the old country of
Navap, namely, the land of Lulan.

The purpose of composing this book has been to describe the mountains and
valleys [of the Western Regions], to investigate and collect data on the con-
ditions in different lands, to narrate in detail the upright and variable customs
of various countries, and to record the climatic and topographic situations

342

Fascicle XII

of diverse locales. As circumstances were always changing I laid emphasis
on different points at different times. Although it was difficult for me to trace
the origin of everything I described by no means did I resort to conjecture
or fabrication, but I could write only in a brief manner about what I saw or
heard on my journey and keep a record of the spread of the edification of
Buddhism. Up to the place where the sun sets all people live under the benefi-
cence of the Emperor, whose ultimate virtue is admired by all within the
reach of his moral influence. The entire empire is a great unity and the world
is the manifestation of oneness. Am I merely a solitary envoy going in a
single carriage, passing through travelers' rest stations for a distance of ten
thousand /i?

343

946a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Eulogy of the Buddha

The Eulogy says: Great is the King of the Dharma, who appeared in the world
with his spiritual edification working secretly and his divine Way leading to
emptiness. His form and mentality disappeared in as many worlds as there
are grains of sand in the Ganges River, and he ceased to rise and fall for
kalpas as innumerable as atoms in the world. As his form and mentality have
disappeared his birth has no reality of birth, because as he has ceased to rise
and fall his extinction has nothing of extinction. Could his birth in Kapilavastu
have been a real fact? His passing away between the śđla trees was merely
a means of his secret edification. We should know that he manifested his
traces in the world at opportune moments in accordance with circumstances
to show the effect of his spirituality.

He was born in a Sakya family of the ksatriya caste. He should have suc-
ceeded to the throne of his native country but he devoted his life to religious
activities. He gave up the prospect of being a universal monarch of the golden
wheel and preferred to rule over the world of the Dharma; from the white
curl between his eyebrows he emitted a light to comfort all living beings.
His Way prevails in the ten directions and his wisdom comprehends every-
thing. Even though he is from the unknowable universe he provides shelter
to those who are in the discernible world. He turned the wheel of the Dharma
ofthe three classifications in the great chiliocosm and expounded his doctrine
in one and the same voice to teach the masses. His teachings are classified
into eighty-four thousand gates, the essence of which is summed up in the
twelve divisions of the scriptures. Therefore, wherever they are under the
protection of his teachings the people can move about freely in the field of
blessedness, and wherever they are inspired by his morals and discipline all
people live in the land of longevity. Glorious are his saintly and sagacious
deeds and perfect is his goodness toward human and heavenly beings! He
gave up both mobility and immobility in the grove of sa/a trees and nullified
the conception of coming and going in illusory existence, and no one could
succeed him to glorify his doctrine of emptiness.

In order to repay the kindness of the Buddha, Venerable Mahakasyapa
selected a group of arhats to collect the precious Dharma, consisting of the
four Agamas explaining its origin and ramifications and the Tripitaka, which

344

Fascicle XII

gives its essential theories. Although various schools and sects have arisen
the essence of the great Dharma remains unchanged. From his birth up to
his demise [the Buddha] showed a thousand transformations of his holy traces
and manifested propitious omens in ten thousand ways. His limitless spiri-
tuality became more and more apparent and his teachings of nonaction were
always pure and fresh. All these have been preserved in the scriptures and
written down in the records and commentaries. Different opinions became
confused and tangled, however, and dissidents spread their own diverse
views. The original and fundamental theories are rarely interpreted in the
correct way. There are many variant views even in the writings that are based
on concrete facts, let alone in the texts that deal with the abstruse and profound
right Dharma and that delve into the deep meanings of the abstract and rec-
ondite principles, where there are many incomplete points in exposition. This
is because previous sages of virtue remained only in the track of translation
and brilliant scholars of later times followed the course shown by incomplete
texts. Thus the great doctrine was hidden in obscurity and the subtle sayings
were missing and unknown to the world.

The teachings of the Dharma have been spreading for many years. Begin-
ning with the Han dynasty and up to the present reign of the Tang, the glorious
task of translation has been carried on in a fluent and graceful manner, as
splendidly as the conjoined shining of the sun and moon. Tthe abstruse Way
was not revealed in its entirety, however, and the true essence was still obscure.
This was not because the holy teachings were sometimes active and other
times inactive but simply due to untimely royal patronage.

Since the Great Tang has held sway over the empire it has won the con-
fidence of foreign countries. The old rules formulated by the saints have been
scrutinized and the outdated codes laid down by former monarchs amended.
The teachings of the image period of Buddhism are exuberantly expounded
as great instructions. The Way does not exist in vain but its propagation
depends on the illustration of virtue. This is why the abstruse doctrines of
the three vehicles were buried in oblivion for the last thousand years, and
the spiritual efficacy of the Buddha's ten powers of wisdom were shut out
ten thousand /i away. It is true that the divine Way has no directional limitations
in its spread, but the holy teachings have to depend on circumstances for
their appearance.

345

946b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

Eulogy of Xuanzang

The genealogical origin of Dharma master Xuanzang may be traced back to
Emperor Shun, who once fished at Leize and later married the two daughters
of Emperor Yao at the Gui River, and whose descendants adopted the surname
Chen. He is the embodiment of the good omen of superior virtue and contains
the perfection of medium harmony. He follows the right Way in accordance
with virtue and abides by chastity to rectify his behavior. Because he planted
the cause of blessedness in his previous birth he was reborn into this life
during a time of prosperity. His conduct surpassed that of the world and he
stayed quietly in learning centers to receive the correct instructions taught
by former teachers and to admire the virtues of previous philosophers. In the
course of wandering in pursuit of his studies he traveled to the regions of
Yan and Zhao and visited the states of Lu and Wei. After leaving the district
of the Three Rivers at his back he entered the interior of the region of Qin.
He proceeded from the three prefectures of Shu and arrived at the state of
Wukuai. He approached all learned scholars to ask for instructions and, in
the presence of distinguished people, he repeatedly avowed his intention of
going abroad to acquire the Dharma. He heard the discussions of various
schools and made a study of their propositions, finding that they vied with
each other to emphasize their own specific theories and were critical of their
rivals’ teachings. This aroused his desire to get to the root of the doctrine of
Buddhism and he determined to make a thorough study of the matter.

Ata time when the empire within the four seas was in good order and the
distant lands in the eight directions were free from trouble, he prepared himself
and began the journey, traveling staff in hand, on the morning of the first day
of the eighth month in the third year of the Zhenguan reign (629 C.E.). With
the Emperor's prestige he made his way, and under the protection of deities
he traveled in solitude. He went out from the strategic passes at the Iron Gate
and the Rocky Gate and climbed over the perilous Ice Mountains and Snow
Mountains. In the course of time he reached India, where he publicized Chinese
civilization in the foreign land and propagated the great teachings in the alien
country. He studied Sanskrit texts under the instruction of learned scholars and
the dubious points he had in his mind were resolved by reading the books. As
regards the profound doctrines, he sought the elucidation of highly talented

346

Fascicle XII

teachers. He opened his mind to understand the ultimate truth and clarified
his spirit to realize the Way. He heard what he had never heard before and
acquired what had not yet been acquired. He became a beneficial friend in
Buddhist circles and was indeed a master in the gate of the Dharma. From
this we may know that his religious fame was prominent and his virtuous
deeds were lofty and noble. His store of knowledge was accumulated over
three years and his reputation spread ten thousand /i. The scholars of India
respected him for his great virtue, calling him Basket Full of Scriptures or
General of the Dharma. The Hinayana disciples named him Moksadeva (“Deity
of Emancipation”), while the Mahayana followers called him Mahayanadeva
(“Deity of the Great Vehicle"). These were titles bestowed on him in honor
of his virtue, eulogistic epithets used to show respect for his personality.

As regards the abstruse theories of the three classifications of the turning
of the wheel of the Dharma and the subtle sayings spoken by the Buddha
after three inquiries, he conducted profound research into their roots and
acquired a full understanding of the leaves and branches. He promptly became
intellectually enlightened and happily clarified his theoretical entanglements.
The dubious points he had raised were recorded in certain works. Having
made a deep study of the theoretical principles and mastered the lore of meta-
physics, with his repute as an erudite scholar spreading widely and having
achieved great virtue, he began touring the country, visiting the towns and
their vicinities. He left the city of Kusagrapura and entered the Deer Park,
and after visiting Yastivana (Yasti Wood) he rested at Kukkutarama Monastery.
He looked around the country of Kapilavastu and had a glimpse of the city
of Kusinagara. The old site of the Buddha’s birthplace had turned into a plain
of fertile land and the other sites of secret spirituality lay in ruins in vast
wildernesses. When he looked for the divine traces his remembrance of the
past glories increased, and he sighed with regret while recalling the Buddha’s
teachings with admiration. He was not merely like Jizi, who sang the Ode
to Flowering Wheat in sorrow over the fallen dynasty of Yin, nor was he
similar to the senior official at the court of Zhou, who composed the Lyric
of the Millet Shoots lamenting the collapse of the house of Zhou. He narrated
in detail the stories of Sakyamuni Buddha and gave an account of many his-
torical facts of India. He also recounted the manners and customs of various
places and wrote down the strange legends. Time passed swiftly and he

347

946c

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

sojourned in India for several years. Although he was much attached to the
Land of Happiness he did not forget to return to his homeland.

He procured one hundred and fifty grains of the Tathagata's relic bones;
a golden image of the Buddha one foot six inches high, including the base
and halo, an imitation of the shadow image in the dragon's cave at Pragbodhi
Mountain in the country of Magadha; a golden image of the Buddha three
feet three inches high, including the base and halo, an imitation of the image
of the Buddha in the posture of turning the wheel of the Dharma for the first
time at Deer Park in the country of Baranasi; a sandalwood image of the
Buddha one foot five inches high, including the base and halo, an imitation
of the sandalwood portrait made by King Udayana of the country of Kaušambi
when he longed to see the Tathagata; a sandalwood image of the Buddha
two feet nine inches high, including the base and halo, an imitation of the
image of the Tathagata descending by a precious stairway from the heavenly
palace to earth in the country of Kapitha; a silver image of the Buddha four
feet high, including the base and halo, an imitation of the image of the Buddha
as he was preaching the Saddharmapundarika-sütra and other scriptures on
Vulture Peak in the country of Magadha; a golden image ofthe Buddha three
feet five inches high, including the base and halo, an imitation of the shadow
portrait left by the Buddha when he had subdued a venomous dragon in the
country of Nagarahara; a sandalwood image of the Buddha one foot three
inches high, including the base and halo, an imitation of the Buddha's image
in the posture of making a tour in the [capital] city of the country of Vaisali
to edify the inhabitants. [He also brought back] two hundred and twenty-
four Mahayana scriptures; one hundred and ninety-two Mahayana treatises;
fourteen scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of the Sthavira school;
fifteen scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of the Mahasamghika
school; fifteen scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of the Sammitiya
school; twenty-two scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of the Mahi-
sasaka school; seventeen scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of the
Каѕуартуа school; forty-two scriptures, disciplinary texts, and treatises of
the Dharmagupta school; sixty-seven scriptures, disciplinary texts, and
treatises of the Sarvastivada school; thirty-six texts on hetuvidyd (logic); and
thirteen texts on sabdavidya (Sanskrit grammar): altogether six hundred and
fifty-seven books bound in five hundred and twenty bundles.

348

Fascicle XII

In order to propagate the supreme teachings he prepared his carriage for
the return journey on the perilous way. He came out of the old country of
Sravasti and left the former suburbs of Gaya. After ascending the dangerous
path over the Cong Ling Mountains and traversing the hazardous passage
through the desert, he arrived in the capital in the first month of the spring
of the nineteenth year (of the Zhenguan reign, 645 C.E.). He had an interview
with the Emperor at Luoyang, who ordered him to translate the Sanskrit texts
into Chinese. He summoned scholars to work with him to achieve this superior
deed through joint effort. The Cloud of the Dharma again cast [its protective]
shade and the Sun of Wisdom emitted brilliant light anew. The edification
that the Buddha taught at Vulture Peak prevailed in the Chinese capital, and
the teachings brought out from the dragon’s palace were expounded in the
metropolitan district. This was a time of prosperity in the spread of Buddhism
during its image period.

The Master is dexterously conversant with the Sanskrit language, with
which he praised the profound Buddhist texts. He reads Sanskrit books as if
they were his own compositions and his intonation still echoes in the air.
Strictly adhering to the Buddha’s meanings, he does not add any embellish-
ments to his translations. Unknown dialects and previouly untranslated San-
skrit terms have been carefully studied and weighed through research and
mutual collation with passages from classical Buddhist texts, lest deviations
should occur.

A gentleman in official dress approached the Master and said earnestly
to him, “India is a country where divine beings and saints assembled and
people of virtue were born. Their writing is that of the gods and their language
that of the deities, with graceful and well-constructed diction rhythmically
pronounced, with one word having many meanings, and one meaning being
expressed in different words. There are falling and rising intonations and
voiced as well as unvoiced consonants. The translation of the profound
Buddhist texts must depend on brilliant scholars and the abstruse essences
of the scriptures must be explained by people of great virtue. If deletions are
made in a translation or if the words are tuned according to musical notation
it is really inappropriate and cannot truly be regarded as good work. The
exposition of the profound essences of the scriptures must be easily under-
standable. So long as it is not contradictory to the original meaning it may

349

947a

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

be considered well done. Excessive embellishments may render a translation
too flowery in style; if [the language] is too simple it will be inelegant. Only
when it is done in a plain style without ornamentation and written elegantly
without being dull can a work be free of grave blunders and counted as a
good translation. Laozi said, ‘Florid sayings are not trustworthy and trust-
worthy words are not florid.’ Hanzi said, ‘When one's reason is justifiable
one’s speech is straightforward; if one talks in ornate language he is hiding
the truth." From these maxims we may know that the principle is equally
applicable to all things. It is hoped that obscure and unintelligible points may
be expurgated for the readers’ benefit and delight. It is very harmful to deviate
from the original meanings in order to give place to ornamental verbiage,
and adherence to obsolete rules is something to which the Buddha strongly
objected." Both the monks and the laity said unanimously, “Yes! What has
been said is really true!”

Formerly, when Confucius was in a position to hear litigation he used to
write verdicts jointly with others and never did so by himself alone. In com-
posing his Spring and Autumn Annals he wrote what should be written and
deleted what should be cut out, and even such learned literati among his dis-
ciples as Ziyou and Zixia could not aid him in writing a word. The Master
did his translation in the same way. He is not like Kumarajiva, who translated
Buddhist texts at the Garden of Leisure and Repose, allowing his disciples
Daosheng, Sengzhao, Daorong, and Sengrui to make deletions as they pleased.
How could we add or remove anything of the Buddha's teachings in an age
when the angles of a square are cut off to make it round and when ostentation
is discarded and simplicity upheld?

350

Fascicle XII

Note by Bianji

I, Bianji, the descendant of a remote progenitor who believed in high culture,
cherished the ambition even as a child to lead a life of seclusion. When I had
just reached school age I cut my hair, changed into religious robes, and
became a disciple of Venerable Daoyue of the Sarvastivada school in the
great Zongchi Monastery. Although I met a learned teacher my stupidity ren-
dered me as useless as a piece of rotten wood that cannot be carved into
shape. I was lucky to have entered the stream of the Dharma but I failed to
saturate myself in the dew of learning, and I merely ate my fill all day long
and did nothing but face the wall to pass the years. Fortunately the time came
for me to take part in this fine gathering of intellectuals where, even with my
ability as meager as that of a sparrow, I worked at the end of a long line of
brilliant scholars, resembling lofty swans, in writing this Record with my
smattering of literary knowledge. I am not a student who is well versed in
ancient writings and my compositions are devoid of ornamental phrases. I
worked just like one who carves a piece of rotten wood with a blunt burin,
toiling as laboriously as a lame person. I respectfully listened to the words,
committed them to writing, and put them in proper order. Under the orders
of the Secretary of State I compiled the Record as it is presented here. Due
to my shallow wisdom and limited ability, I must have made many uninten-
tional omissions and there may be surplus words that should have been
deleted. Formerly, when the highly talented historian Sima Zichang wrote
his Historical Records, succeeding to his father's task as grand historian,
even he sometimes only mentioned the given name of a person and neglected
the second name. As regards places, he often only denoted the name of the
county without indicating that of the prefecture. So it is said that even a
discreet scholar when working alone on a heavy and complicated task is apt
to be neglectful, let alone a person of slow wits and poor capability, such as
myself. How could I expect to be perfect and consummate in my work?

The different topographical conditions and social customs, the territorial
limits and native products, the temperament and intelligence of different peo-
ples, as well as the cold and warm climates of the four seasons in various
regions have been ascertained and described in detail, good or bad, according
to the actual facts. As regards the personal names of people of different tribes,

351

947b

The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions

they are given together with the names of their countries of origin. Indian
customs and teachings are divided into two categories, namely, religious and
secular. All these are briefly narrated but a full description can be found in
the preceding preface. Such matters as social etiquette, ceremonies, household
registration, brave warriors, and religious recluses are not described in detail.

The Buddha contacted people through the employment of supernatural
powers and taught them with spiritual admonition, and it is said that his
divine Way is deep and mysterious, its principles alien to the human world,
and that whatever profundities he exposed in his spiritual admonitions are
concerned with things beyond the sky. Brief accounts, with succinct notes,
have been given for all the places where the Buddha left his auspicious traces,
and for the ruins connected with the good names of former sages. The roads
wound and zigzagged and the boundaries of different countries unevenly
interlocked with one another. Descriptions of the places of the Master's
journey have been presented in sequence, without editorial arrangement. The
different parts of India, irrespective of national boundaries, are indicated at
the end of the description of each country, in order to give a rough idea of
its whereabouts. Where the word "going" is used in the narration, it means
that the Master visited the place in person; the word "reaching" signifies that
he merely gathered information [about a place] for his record. It is variously
written in a straightforward way, according to facts, or in a mild and round-
about way to put it in a graceful style with well-balanced words, in order to
submit a trustworthy record to His Supreme Majesty the Emperor.

In the seventh month in the autumn of the twentieth year (of the Zhenguan
reign, 646 C.E.) I completed the compilation, inscribed it on pure white silk,
and presented it to the Emperor for his perusal, despite my uncertainty whether
it would meet His Majesty’s expectations. However, the risky journey to a
distant land was actually undertaken under the prestige of the imperial court
and the composition of the topographical record of foreign countries was
done with curiosity under His Majesty's inspiration. It was not only Kuafu
who had the strength to chase the sun to the remotest realms; the opening
up of the Western Regions can by no means be solely due to the merit of the
Marquis of Bowang. Vulture Peak is made known in China through this
Record, and Deer Park is rendered as familiar as the outer garden of the impe-
rial palace. It enables one to visualize what happened a thousand years ago

352

Fascicle XII

and see the sights along the ten thousand-/i journey as if one had visited the
places in person. All of this has not been heard of since the remote past, nor
was it recorded in previous books.

The Emperor's supreme virtue covers all, and different countries with
diverse customs have come to offer allegiance. The tradition of honesty and
magnanimity has spread to far regions, even wild and out-of-the-way locales,
without exception. This Record may serve as a supplement to the Shanhai
jing; let it be published as a chronicle and distributed to the concerned author-
ities as a general reference.

End of Fascicle XII of The Great Tang Dynasty
Record of the Western Regions

353

Glossary

Abhidharma pitaka: The section (Skt. pitaka, “basket”) of the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka)
containing systematic accounts of the teachings of the sutras. See also Tripitaka.

absolute truth: The ultimate truth that is beyond words and conceptualization, generally
contrasted with relative truth, the conventional truth that can be put into words.
Mahayana teachings insist that both relative truth and absolute truth are equally
valid. See also Mahayana.

Ananda: The Buddha's cousin, close disciple, and personal attendant. He was renowned
for his ability to recite all of the Buddha's sermons from memory.

Anathapindika: A wealthy lay follower and donor to the Buddha. Also called Sudatta.

arhat: A saint who has freed himself from the bonds of samsara by eliminating all passions.
The spirtual ideal of the Hinayana. See also Hinayana.

Avalokitesvara: The celestial bodhisattva who embodies compassion.

ayatana: Literally, “seat”; the twelve ayatanas refer to the six sense faculties and their
associated six objects.

bhiksu/bhiksuni: A Buddhist monk/nun.

bodhisattva: A seeker of buddhahood who gradually perfects the virtues of wisdom and
compassion for the sake of liberating all sentient beings from suffering. The spiritual
ideal of the Mahayana. See also Mahayana.

bodhi tree: The tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment.
buddha-dharma. See Dharma.

deva: A god.

Dharma: The doctrine taught by the Buddha; Buddhist teachings.

dhatu: Sphere or realm. The eighteen dhatus are the twelve ayatanas and the six corre-
sponding consciousnesses. See also ayatana.

doctrine of emptiness (sunyata): One of the central tenets of Mahayana Buddhism, the
doctrine that all things exist only in dependence on a complex web of causes and
conditions and are empty of any permanent essence.

eight emancipations: Emancipation from attachment to forms and desires through eight
types of meditation.

ekayana (One Vehicle): Also called buddhayana (buddha vehicle); a term used to denote
the Mahayana as the final and complete Dharma of the Buddha, not merely a part
or a preliminary stage, as the Hinayana is considered to be by Mahayanists. The

355

Glossary

One Vehicle teaching, which asserts that all beings have the capacity for buddhahood,
is emphatically maintained in the teaching of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika-
sütra).

five desires: Desire for the objects of the five senses.

five branches of mundane knowledge: Grammar, mathematics, medicine, logic, and phi-
losophy.

five precepts: (1) not to kill, (2) not to steal, (3) not to commit adultery, (4) not to speak
falsely, and (5) not to ingest intoxicants.

four forms of birth: The four possible ways that living beings may be born: (1) birth
from a womb, (2) birth from an egg, (3) birth from moisture, and (4) birth through
metamorphosis.

four monastic requisites: The four necessities of a monk: clothing, food, bedding (or a
dwelling place), and medicine.

Four Noble Truths: The fundamental Buddhist teaching: (1) Existence is characterized
by suffering, (2) defilements are the cause of suffering, (3) suffering can be ended,
(4) the way to end suffering is through following the Buddha's eightfold noble path,
Le., right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort,
right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Hinayana (“Small Vehicle"): A derogatory term applied by Mahayanists to various schools
of Buddhism that exalt as their ideal the arhat. See also arhat; Mahayana.

image period: According to a belief in the gradual decline of the Buddha's teaching
(usually said to begin a thousand years after the Buddha's death and to last for a
thousand years), the image, or “counterfeit,” period is the second period, during
which conditions are not as favorable for practice as in the first period of the true
Dharma, but are still better than in the third period of the final Dharma.

Jambudvipa: The phenomenal world of human beings; this world.

Jataka stories: Tales of the Buddha's previous lives as a bodhisattva.

kalpa: An immense period of time, an eon.

kasáya: A Buddhist monastic robe.

koti: An extremely large number, usually ten million or sometimes one hundred mil-
lion.

li: A Chinese unit of measuring distance, approximately one-third of a mile.

mahasattva (“great being"): A bodhisattva of great wisdom and compassion.

Mahayana (“Great Vehicle"): Teachings on the attainment of enlightenment or buddhahood

in which the ideal is the bodhisattva, in contrast to the Hinayana ideal of arhatship.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The great Tang Dynasty record of the western Regions"

See other formats